Abstract
This chapter offers a comparative examination of the situation of the Quechua language in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia in the present day, taking into account the historical processes that have led to the similarities and differences to be observed. It is divided into three main sections:(i) a discussion of the statistics on numbers and distribution of speakers;(ii) a review of language policy in the three States, with particular reference to issues of language related identity politics and language rights; and(iii) an illustration of the ways in which processes of language contact have impacted upon the forms of the language as used in daily life, by means of a brief case study from each country. I then close with some critical reflection on the relationship between these three levels of analysis.
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Notes
Alfredo Torero, “Los dialectos quechuas,” Anales Científicos de la Universidad Agraria 2 (1964), 446–78.
Torero, El quechuay la historia social andina (Lima: Universidad Ricardo Palma, 1974)
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Marleen Haboud, Quichua y castellano en los Andes ecuatorianos. Los efectos de un contacto prolongado (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1998); “Quichua Language Vitality: An Ecuadorian Perspective,” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 167 (2004), 69–81.
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Rosaleen Howard, Por los linderos de la lengua. Ideologías lingüísticas en los Andes (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos/Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos/Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2007).
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For information on Argentinean Quichua see Jorge R. Alderetes and Lelia Inés Albarracín, “El quechua en Argentina: El caso de Santiago del Estero,” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 167 (2004), 83–93; for Colombian Ingano see.
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Penelope Harvey, “Women Who Won’t Speak Spanish,” in Pauline Burton, Ketaki Kushari Dyson, and Shirley Ardener (eds.), Bilingual Women: Anthropological Approaches to Second Language Use (Oxford: Berg, 1994), pp. 44–64.
Rosaleen Howard-Malverde, “‘Pachamama is a Spanish word’: Linguistic Tension between Aymara, Quechua and Spanish in Northern Potosí (Bolivia),” Anthropological Linguistics 37:2 (Summer 1995), 141–68.
Ibid., p. 326. The entrenched differences of opinion between members of the AMLQQ and linguists and education planners who are outsiders to Cuzco crystallize over whether the language should be represented in writing as having five vowels or three (Nancy Hornberger, “Five vowels or three? Linguistics and politics in Quechua language planning in Peru,” in James Tollefson (ed.), Power and Inequality in Language Education (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 187–205; Howard, Por los linderos de la lengua, pp. 323–27); what is apparently a linguistic debate in fact expresses cultural, social and political rivalries between the Cuzco regionalists and the wider Peruvian State which go back at least to the period of the Tupac Amaru II uprising of the late eighteenth century (Mannheim, The Language of the Inka). The puristic Quechua promulgated by the Academy is a means for this group to distinguish itself from the rural Quechua speakers (“runa” or “Indians”), in terms of an elitist sense of their own historical identity; theirs is an exclusionary discourse in this respect. For further discussion see.
Mercedes Niño-Murcia, “Linguistic Purism in Cuzco, Peru: A Historical Perspective,” Language Problems and Language Planning 21:2 (1997), pp. 134–61
Tim Marr, “Neither the State nor the Grass Roots: Language Maintenance and the Discourse of the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua,” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 2:3 (1999), 181–97
Marisol de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos. The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919–1991 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000)
Howard, Por los linderos de la lengua; Serafín M. Coronel-Molina, “Language Ideologies of the High Academy of the Quechua Language in Cuzco, Peru,” Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies 3:3 (Nov. 2008), 319–40.
Xavier Albó, Los mil rostros del quechua. Sociolingüística de Cochabamba (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1974).
Inge Sichra, La vitalidad del quechua. Lengua y sociedad en dos provincias de Cochabamba (La Paz: PROEIB Andes/Plural, 2003).
Xavier Albó, “El futuro del quechua visto desde una perspectiva boliviana,” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 167 (2004), 119–30, see p. 123; cf. Hornberger and Coronel-Molina, “Quechua Language Shift,” p. 20.
Inge Sichra, “Trascendiendo o fortaleciendo el valor emblemático del quechua: Identidad de la lengua en la ciudad de Cochabamba,” in Serafín M. Coronel-Molina and L. L. Grabner-Coronel (eds.), Lenguas e identidades en los Andes. Perspectivas ideológicasy culturales (Quito: Abya Yala, 2005), pp. 211–50, see p. 211.
Tim Marr, “The Language Left at Ticlio: Social and Cultural Perspectives on Quechua Language Loss in Lima, Peru,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool, 1998.
Godenzzi, Juan Carlos, “Literacy and modernization among the Quechua speaking population of Peru,” in Nancy H. Hornberger Indigenous Literacies in the Americas: Language Planning from the Bottom Up (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997), p. 239, cited by Serafín Coronel-Molina, “Functional Domains of the Quechua Language in Peru.
Serafín Coronel-Molina, “Functional Domains of the Quechua Language in Peru: Issues of Status Planning,” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 2:3 (1999), 174.
Republic of Perú, Constitución Política del Perú (1993), Chapter. 1, art. 2, clause 19.
Andrés Chirinos Rivera, Perumanta hatun kamachina. Constitución Política del Perú 1993. Traducción por A Chirinos. (Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso de la República Peruana, 1999).
Xavier Albó, Educando en la diferencia: Hacia unaspolíticas interculturales y lingüísticaspara el sistema educativo (La Paz: Ministerio de Educación/UNICEF/CIPCA, 2002), p. 37.
Coordinadora Permanente de los Pueblos Indígenas del Perú (COPPIP), Correo indígena, 31 Oct. 2003.
Congreso Nacional (2008). Asamblea Constituyente de Bolivia. Nueva Constitución Política del Estado. Arts 5.I, 5.II.
Nancy H. Hornberger, “Bilingual Education Success but Policy Failure,” Language in Society 16:2 (1987), 205–26.
Utta Von Gleich, Educación primaria bilingüe intercultural en América Latina (Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Zusamenarbeit, 1989).
F. Chiodi (ed.), La educación indígena en América Latina, 2 vols. (Santiago and Quito: OREALC/GTZ/Abya Yala, 1990).
Nina Laurie, R. Andolina, and S. Radcliffe, “Indigenous Professionalization: Transnational Social Reproduction in the Andes,” Antipode 35:3 (2003), pp. 463–90; Howard, Por los linderos de la lengua, p. 275.
Luis Enrique López-Hurtado Q., De resquicios a boquerones. La educación intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia (La Paz: PROEIB Andes/Plural, 2005).
Rosaleen Howard, “Education Reform, Indigenous Politics, and Decolonisation in the Bolivia of Evo Morales,” International Journal of Educational Development 29:6 (2009), 583–93.
Joshua Fishman, “Bilingualism With and Without Diglossia; Diglossia With and Without Bilingualism,” Journal of Social Issues 23:2 (Apr. 1967), 29–38.
For example, Luis Cordero, prominent criollo landowner, university professor, and president of the Republic of Ecuador from 1892–1895, had extensive knowledge of the language as evidenced in his fine Spanish-Quichua dictionary compiled in 1892 (Luis Cordero, Diccionario quichua-español español-quichua. Cuenca: Universidad de Cuenca, 1967 [1892]).
Rosaleen Howard, “‘Why Do They Steal Our Phonemes?’ Inventing the Survival of the Cañari Language (Ecuador),” in Eithne B. Carlin and Simon van de Kerke (eds.), Linguistics and Archaeology in the Americas: The Historicization of Language and Society (Leiden: Brill, 2010), Chapter 7.
Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Castellano andino. Aspectossociolingüísticos, pedagógicos y gramaticales (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2003).
For further discussion of this data see Rosaleen Howard, “Beyond the lexicon of difference: discursive performance of identity in the Andes,” Latin American Caribbean and Ethnic Studies 4:1 (2009), 17–46.
Deborah Cameron, Verbal Hygiene (London: Routledge, 1995).
Enrique Ballón Aguirre, “La dentera multilingüe e intercultural en las sociedades andinas (conflictos de lengua, habla y escritura),” Revista Andina 49 (2009), 135–64.
Haboud, “Quichua language vitality,” p. 81; related issues are discussed by Aurolyn Luykx “The Future of Quechua and the Quechua of the Future: Language Ideologies and Language Planning in Bolivia,” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 167 (2004), 154–57.
Kathryn A. Woolard, “Language Convergence and Language Death as Social Processes,” in Nancy Dorian (ed.), Investigating Obsolescence. Studies in Language Contraction and Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 355–67; see also Howard-Malverde, “Pachamama is a Spanish word,” p. 144.
Pieter Muysken, “Media lengua,” in Sarah G. Thomason (ed.), Contact Languages: a Wider Perspective (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1997), pp. 365–425.
J. Gómez Rendón, Typological and Social Constraints on Language Contact (Amsterdam: Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics, 2008).
Germán de Granda, Estudios de lingüística andina (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2001).
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© 2011 Paul Heggarty and Adrian J. Pearce
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Howard, R. (2011). The Quechua Language in the Andes Today: Between Statistics, the State, and Daily Life. In: Heggarty, P., Pearce, A.J. (eds) History and Language in the Andes. Studies of the Americas. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230370579_9
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