LUNA Linus Nghifingiwanga Shifidi Master’s thesis INTEGRATION OF TRANSLANGUAGING IN LESSONS: An approach to teaching and learning in Namibian junior secondary schools A qualitative case study in three regions in Namibia Master in Adapted education 2014 Samtykker til utlån hos høgskolebiblioteket JA ☒ NEI ☐ Samtykker til tilgjengeliggjøring i digitalt arkiv Brage JA ☒ NEI ☐ English summary (abstract) The history of Namibia shows that Namibia was a German colony from 1884 to 1914. After Independence in 1990, English became the official language and the language of instruction as from grade 4 up to University level. The Namibian language policy instructs teachers and learners to use English across the curriculum except in mother tongue lesson in spite of various indigenous languages in Namibia. Translanguaging as defined by Garcia (2006) is the use of more than one language in a classroom. Garcia referred to it as ‘planned and systematic use of two languages inside one lesson which may help the learners to learn and understand through interactional communication with the teacher and their peers. This study was guided by three theoretical frameworks - constructivist, socio-cultural perspectives and bilingualism where observations and interviews were used as methods for my data collection. The investigation was aimed at exploring the existence of translanguaging in Namibian schools, the extent to which translanguaging occurs during lessons as well as looking at opinions from teachers whether translanguaging has a potential to enhance learners’ understanding of the subject contents. In order to embark on the investigation of the translanguaging phenomenon in Namibian school, three schools were picked from three regions of Khomas, Oshikoto and Ohangwena respectively. There were 30 participants consisting of 6 learners, 3 teachers, 1 Head of department from each of the three schools. The findings from both teachers and learners indicate that translanguaging is indeed happening in these regions. The findings shows that translanguaging is more common as one moves from urban to rural schools perhaps due to a lack of facilities and expertise. Respondents are positive towards translanguaging, they feel certain that translanguaging helps learners to understand, and encourages them to participate and interact with each other during lessons Based on the responses from both teachers and learners in these three regions, it is evident that translanguaging is actually prevailing in Namibian schools especially in Oshikoto and Ohangwena regions. Both teachers and learners have highlighted some reasons such as helping learners with understanding difficult concepts. Both teachers and learners have acknowledged the necessity of translanguaging and cited the potential of translanguaging in enhancing learning and understanding, participation, and socialization in multicultural/lingual classrooms. The conclusion should be that translanguaging is really necessary in Namibia as a means of communication strategy in case learners seem not to be on track. The study found that there are certain schools with internal policies that prohibit learners from speaking their local languages in the school premises even to the extent of charging them to pay a certain amount as a punishment for using their local languages. I think this practice is not good because it may cause learners to show contempt for their mother tongues and devalue their cultural and linguistic heritage. 2 Norwegian summary (abstract) Historien om Namibia viser at Namibia var en tysk koloni fra 1884 til 1914. Etter friheten i 1990, ble engelsk det offisielle språket og språket i undervisningen fra 4. Klasse til universitetsnivå. Den namibiske språkpolitikk instruerer lærere og elever til å bruke engelsk på tvers av pensum bortsett fra i morsmål leksjon på tross av ulike urfolksspråk i Namibia. Translanguaging som definert av Garcia (2006) er bruk av mer enn ett språk i et klasserom. Garcia refererer til det som 'planlagt og systematisk bruk av to språk innenfor en lærdom som kan hjelpe elevene til å lære og forstå gjennom kommunikasjon med læreren og medelevene.’ Denne studien ble ledet av tre teoretiske rammeverk som er konstruktivistiske, sosiokulturelle perspektiver og tospråklighet hvor jeg brukte observasjoner og intervjuer som metoder for min datainnsamling. Undersøkelsen ble rettet mot å finne ut om det finnes translanguaging i namibiske skoler, i hvilken grad translanguaging oppstår i timene, så vel som å finne ut fra lærere og elever hva de mener om hvorvidt translanguaging har et potensial for å øke elevenes forståelse av emnest innholdet. For å kunne ta fatt på etterforskningen av translanguaging fenomen i Namibiske skoler, ble tre skoler plukket fra tre regioner i Khomas, Oshikoto og Ohangwena. Det var 30 deltakere, bestående av seks elever, tre lærere, og en avdelingsleder fra hver av de tre skolene. Funnene fra både lærere og elever tyder på at translanguaging faktisk skjer i disse regionene. Funnene viser at translanguaging er mer vanlig etter hvert som man beveger seg fra urbane til rurale skoler. Grunn kan være mangel på fasiliteter og kompetanse. Respondentene er positive til translanguaging; de føler at translanguaging hjelper elevene til å forstå, oppmuntrer dem til å delta og samhandle med hverandre i timene. Basert på svarene fra både lærere og elever i disse tre regionene, er det tydelig at translanguaging faktisk er rådende i namibiske skolene, spesielt i Oshikoto og Ohangwena regioner. Både lærere og elever har markert noen årsaker for dette, som for eksempel for å hjelpe elever med å forstå vanskelige begreper. Både lærere og elever har erkjent nødvendigheten av translanguaging og sitert potensialet i translanguaging i å forbedre læring og forståelse, deltagelse, sosialisering i flerkulturelle flerspråklige klasserom. Konklusjonen må være at translanguaging er virkelig nødvendig i Namibiske skoler som et middel for kommunikasjonsstrategi i tilfellet elever ikke synes å være på rett spor. Studien fant at det er visse skoler med interne retningslinjer som forbyr elever fra å tale deres lokale språk i skolens lokaler. I de mest ekstreme tilfeller elever måtte betale en bot som straff hvis de ble tatt for å bruke det lokale språket. Jeg tror denne politikken er feil, fordi den kan få elevene til forakte sitt morsmål og devaluere deres kulturelle og språklige arv. 3 Acknowledgements First and foremost, thanks to God, the Lord Almighty for his gracious mercy on me. He has been protecting me from evils, enemies and paving my paths to the successful attainments of this study, he continues to guide me through the valleys of darkness. My sincere gratitude goes to Lånekassen for granting me the scholarship under quota program. I take off my cap for you. Thanks to Hedmark University College for granting me this study opportunity to pursue my Master degree studies. Special thanks to Prof. Kari Ness for being an overall supervisor. I overwhelmingly thank Dr. Joke Dewilde for being always there for me; listen to me and your guidance and support. Equally, I would thank my cosupervisor, Prof. Thor Ola Engen. I thank you all for your invaluable guidance, support and high professionalism. Similarly, thanks to the International office at Hedmark University College. Special thanks go to Stian Vestby and Ingelinn Sserunjogi Slagsvold for your impartial support and co-ordination; you made everything possible for us international students. I am humbly apologizing for not mentioning all of you, who contributed in your own ways, to the accomplishment of this project, and so grateful for all your support and contributions. Dedications This thesis is dedicated to my wife Lusina, my children, Junior, Grace, Gloria Mathews, Henock, and my mum Maria and my aunt Emilia. I could not have reached this far without your prayers, love, patience, understanding and encouragement. God bless! Declarations I, Linus Nghifingiwanga Shifidi, hereby declare that this study is a true reflection of my own investigation, and that this work, or part thereof has not been submitted for a degree in any other institution of higher learning before. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by means (e.g. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without prior permission from me, or Hedmark University College on my behalf. I grant Hedmark University College right to reproduce this thesis in whole or in part, for any person or institution that may need it for research in any manner or format, the University deems fit. Date …………………………..Signature…………………………….. 4 Lists of abbreviations KHR Khomas Region OHR Ohangwena Region OSHR Oshikoto Region TA Teacher A represents all grade 8 teachers who were interviewed. TB Teacher B represents all grade 9 teachers who were interviewed. TC Teacher C represents all grade10 teachers who were interviewed. TX Teacher X represents all the Head of departments who were interviewed. LA Learner A represents all the grade 8 learners who were interviewed. LB Learner B represents all the grade 9 learners who were interviewed. LC Learner C represents all the grade 10 learners who were interviewed. TL Translanguaging. MT Mother Tongue. GRN Government Republic of Namibia. 5 Contents English summary (abstract) ......................................................................................................... 2 Norwegian summary (abstract) ................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 4 Dedications .................................................................................................................................. 4 Declarations ................................................................................................................................. 4 Lists of abbreviations................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 10 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 Regions ................................................................................................................................ 12 1.2.1 Khomas................................................................................................................................. 12 1.2.2 Oshikoto ............................................................................................................................... 13 1.2.3 Ohangwena. .......................................................................................................................... 13 1.3 Historical background of Namibian Education system ....................................................... 13 1.3.1 Namibia’s pre-independence Education system ................................................................... 14 1.3.2 Namibia’s post-independence Education system ................................................................. 15 1.4 The Statement of the problem ............................................................................................. 16 1.5 My motivation for doing this research ................................................................................ 17 1.6 Research objectives and research questions ........................................................................ 18 1.7 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 18 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................. 20 2.1 Constructivist perspectives .................................................................................................. 20 2.2 Socio-cultural perspective ................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Bi-Multilingualism .............................................................................................................. 22 2.4 Translanguaging .................................................................................................................. 23 CHAPTER 3: METHOLOGOLY ......................................................................................................... 26 3.1 Research design ................................................................................................................... 26 3.2 Population and sample ......................................................................................................... 28 3.3 Data production/collection .................................................................................................. 29 3.3.1 Observation .......................................................................................................................... 29 3.3.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 31 6 3.4 Data analysis ........................................................................................................................ 33 3.5 Ethical consideration ........................................................................................................... 33 3.6 Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................... 34 3.7 Limitations of the study ....................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS ......................................................................................................... 36 4.1 Khomas case ........................................................................................................................ 36 4.1.1 School environment .............................................................................................................. 36 4.1.2 Teachers and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 38 4.1.3 Learners and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 42 4.2 Oshikoto case ....................................................................................................................... 45 4.2.1 School environment ............................................................................................................. 45 4.2.2 Teachers and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 46 4.2.2 Students and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 51 4.3 Ohangwena case .................................................................................................................. 55 4.3.1 School environment ............................................................................................................. 55 4.3.2 Teachers and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 57 4.3.3 Students and translanguaging .............................................................................................. 62 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESULTS .................................................................................. 65 5.1 Discussion of findings from all three regions ...................................................................... 65 5.1.1 Observed usage of translanguaging by teachers and learners ............................................ 66 5.1.2 Reported use of translanguaging by teacher and learners .................................................. 67 5.1.3 Perceptions of translanguaging from teachers and learners ............................................... 69 5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 73 5.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 74 References ................................................................................................................................. 76 Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 78 APPENDIX A: Interview questions to the learners .................................................................................. 78 APPENDIX B: Interview questions to the teachers .................................................................................. 81 APPENDIX C: Interview questions to the principal/HOD ....................................................................... 83 APPENDIX D: Observation checklist ...................................................................................................... 85 7 APPENDIX E: A political map of Namibia ............................................................................................... 86 APPENDIX F. Letter for request for permission from the professor ..................................................... 87 APPENDIX G. Letter for permission from the researcher ...................................................................... 88 APPENDIX H. Letter for permission from Oshikoto Educational director ............................................. 89 Appendix I. Letter for permission from Ohangwena Educational director ........................................... 90 APPENDIX J. Letter for permission from Khomas educational director ................................................ 91 8 Table of figures Figure 1. Map of Namibia indicating 13 regions. .................................................................... 12 Figure 2. Number of participants from each region. ................................................................ 29 Figure 3. The language used by teachers in lesson (observation). ........................................... 38 Figure 4. The language used by teachers daily. ....................................................................... 39 Figure 5.The frequency of translanguaging by teachers (interviews) ...................................... 39 Figure 6. The language used by learners (observation) ........................................................... 42 Figure 7. The frequency of translanguaging among the learners in OSHR (interviews). ........ 43 Figure 8. The language used to translanguage between learners in KHR. ............................... 43 Figure 9. Learners support from home in KHR. ...................................................................... 43 Figure 10. Language used by teachers in OHR (observation) ................................................. 47 Figure 11. Language used by teachers (interviews). ................................................................ 48 Figure 12. The frequency of translanguaging by teacher in OSHR (interviews). .................... 49 Figure 13. The language used by learners in OSHR (observation). ......................................... 51 Figure 14. Language used to translanguage among learners in OSHR. ................................... 52 Figure 15. The frequency of translanguaging among learners in OSHR (interviews) ............. 52 Figure 16. Learner support from home in OSHR..................................................................... 53 Figure 17. The language used by teachers in lesson in OHR (observation) ............................ 58 Figure 18.The language used by teachers daily in lessons in OHR (interviews) ..................... 58 Figure 19. The frequency of translanguaging by teachers in OHR (interviews) ..................... 59 Figure 20. The Language used by learners in OHR (observation)........................................... 62 Figure 21. The frequency of translanguaging among learners in OHR (interviews) ............... 63 Figure 22.The language use to translanguage by learners in OHR. ......................................... 63 Figure 23. The languages used by learners to translanguage in OHR. .................................... 63 9 CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction As an English teacher in Namibia and a person who is passionate about languages, I got motivated to embark on a research concerning the translanguaging phenomenon in Namibian schools. The study was conducted at three lower secondary schools located in different regions. In order to understand the reality of translanguaging in Namibian schools, one has to be acquainted with issues such as the Namibia’s pre-independence Education system, Namibia’s post-independence Education system, the historical background of Namibian Education and the language situation in Namibia. In this chapter, I briefly discuss these issues in subsequent sections of this chapter. The integration of translanguaging as an approach to teaching and learning in Namibian schools is the core phenomenon in this study. Translanguaging is defined by Garcia (2006, p. 14) as ‘the use of more than one language in a classroom’. She referred to translanguaging as ‘planned and systematic use of two languages inside one lesson which will help the learners to learn and understand through interactional communication with the teacher and their peers. Hornberger (2002, p. 5) indicates that recent studies on this phenomenon by Blackledge and Creece (2010) on linguistic ethnography of multilingualism in heritage language schools in the UK shows how students, their families, and teachers translanguage, or flexible language practices that challenge monolingual language policies and ideologies at the national level and help them negotiate multilingual and multicultural identities across home and community settings. Namibia is a country inhabited by about 2,3 million people and approximately 13 recognized languages (Brock-Utne, 1997). Information obtained from Central Intelligence Agency (2011) shows that the most commonly spoken language in Namibia is Oshiwambo with about Oshiwambo languages 48.9%, Nama/Damara 11.3%, Afrikaans 10.4% (common language of most of the population and about 60% of the white population), Otjiherero languages 8.6%, Kavango languages 8.5%, Caprivi languages 4.8%, English (official) 3.4%, other African languages 2.3%, other 1.7% Namibia has 13 recognized national languages, including 10 indigenous African languages and 3 Indo-European languages (2011 est.) 10 In spite of English being an official language, the most commonly used languages at work places and for daily communications especially in urban settings are Afrikaans and local languages. Although English became an official language in Namibia after independence in 1990, one cannot deny the mere fact that Namibia is actually a multilingual country. This can be proven by the existence of many languages as mentioned earlier. I am from one of Oshiwambo language group, which is Oshikwanyama dialect and I could also speak or understand some of the other local languages. As indicated earlier English became an official language in 1990 when the country got its independence from South Africa. It is after independence that the ruling party which came into power had decided for the country to become officially monolingual by choosing English as an official language. Thus, English was declared the only official language of Namibia although some other languages such as Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga, Rukwangari, and Silozi have received semi-official recognition by being allowed as mediums of instruction in primary schools. A half of Namibians population speaks Oshiwambo as their first language, whereas the most widely understood and spoken language is Afrikaans, which one can also consider as a lingua franca in Namibia due to its popularity in the country. Among the younger generation, English is rapidly gaining preference; I think this is due to its advancement in information and communication technology and its prestigious status. Although both Afrikaans and English are used primarily as second languages, there are several mother tongues for different ethnic groups throughout the country. In order to get a practical insight into the concept of translanguaging in Namibia, it is imperative to understand the status and the role of English as an official language and the language of instruction in Namibian schools, as well as the role of indigenous languages in Namibian education. Thus my research was set to explore the concept of translanguaging in lessons in Namibian schools with the main aim to investigate whether the phenomenon of translanguaging exists in Namibian school and to look at the extent to which translanguaging occurs in Namibian schools. The investigation was done at three selected lower secondary schools in the three political regions of Khomas, Oshikoto and Ohangwena respectively. In order to establish a kind of balanced and representative data, I purposefully decided to conduct my research in these three regions because of their differences in terms of infrastructural development, 11 availability of educational facilities, human resources and expertise. In order to understand the locality of these regions see (Fig.1, p. 5) of the map of Namibia showing different political regions of Namibia in which some of the three schools were selected. 1.2 Regions As indicated on the map of Namibia Fig.1 below, Namibia is divided into 13 political regions. In this section, I give a brief description these three regions as follows, Khomas (1.2.1), Oshikoto (1.2.2) and Ohangwena (1.2.3) where the research study was conducted in terms of geographical location, the school environments and availability of facilities, but the findings obtained from teachers and learners from these regions are presented in chapter 4 of this research. Figure 1. Map of Namibia indicating 13 regions. (http://namibiaconsulate.co.za/index.php/information/regional-map-a-dialing-codes) 1.2.1 Khomas As illustrated in Fig.1 of the political map of Namibia, Khomas region is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia. It is located in the central part of Namibia. The name ‘Khomas’ 12 refers to the Khomas Highland, a high plateau landscape that dominates this administrative unit. Khomas Region is where the capital city Windhoek is located. Compared to other regions, Khomas region is characterized by modern educational, economic and superior transportation infrastructures. It has well-developed economic, financial, and trade sectors. Khomas Region occupies only about 4.5% of the land area of Namibia, but has the highest population of people from all other regions due to rural urban migration. 1.2.2 Oshikoto Oshikoto is located on the central Northern part of Namibia see (see Fig.1). The capital city of Oshikoto is Omuthiya. Oshikoto region is predominantly characterized by agricultural activities. The main economic activities in the Northern part of Namibia are livestock farming and mining. Oshikoto is not very well equipped with modern infrastructures, but due to decentralization processes, there is a positive trend in infrastructural development in the near future. Oshikoto is inhabited predominantly by Oshiwambo speakers. The major towns of Oshikoto are Tsumeb (mining) town, Ondangwa, Omuthiya, and others. As in other Regions, one can find speakers of different Namibian languages in many towns of Oshikoto Region, but the dominant languages spoken, especially in rural areas, are mostly Oshiwambo. 1.2.3 Ohangwena. As shown on Fig.1 of the map of Namibia, Ohangwena is located in the far Northern part of Namibia. This region borders with Angola on the north, Oshikoto on the south, Kavango on the east, and Oshana Region. The capital of Ohangwena region is Eenhana. This region is predominantly populated by Oshiwambo speakers, especially the Oshikwanyama and partly Oshindonga and Oshikwambi speakers. Even though there are also other tribes living in this region, Oshikwanyama is the dominant language in this region. Ohangwena region is less developed in terms of infrastructures. Some schools in this region have no electricity, running water, school laboratories or enough classrooms. There are speakers of other languages, but the main language used at home is mostly Oshikwanyama. English is normally used at schools, or for official activities, for instance addressing official meetings. 1.3 Historical background of Namibian Education system In this section, I will give a brief historical background of pre-independence education system in Namibia (1.3.1), post-independence education in Namibia (1.3.2), and the language 13 situation in Namibia (1.3.3). Since most of the countries in Africa went through colonialism in the 18th century, Namibia was first a German colony then, later, was mandated by the league of the nations to South Africa. 1.3.1 Namibia’s pre-independence Education system The history of Namibia shows that Namibia was a German colony from 1884 to 1914. Under the Germany colonial era Namibia was known as South West Africa (Brock-Utne, 1997). German is still one of the important business languages in Namibia that one can hear frequently among shoppers in Windhoek (the Capital City of Namibia) and other towns such as Swakop mund and Walvis Bay. After Independence in 1990, English became the official language (Brock-Utne, 1997). Harber (1993) states that the Namibian education system before independence was similar to what was found elsewhere in Africa, where knowledge and skills were learnt from parents and other elders through conversation, imitation, story-telling, games, songs and ceremonies. The languages used by then were indigenous languages. One can see that informal education existed in Africa long before colonialism because these skills were passed from one generation to the next using indigenous languages. Harber mentioned that when Germany occupied Namibia, they introduced formal education through Christianity, which was aimed to ‘tame Africans to become both submissive and despise their own cultures and history’. The information obtained from the Presidential commission of Education, Culture and Training shows that before independence in 1990 the South African apartheid regime had deliberately used the language as a means of dividing the Namibians into language groups in order to prevent them from uniting (Unesco, 2000). Until Namibia's independence in 1990, the country's education system was designed to reinforce apartheid rather than provide the necessary human resources and promoting equitable social and economic development for all Namibians. Namibian education by then was fragmented along racial and ethnic lines, with vast disparities in both the allocation of resources and the quality of education which was offered to indigenous Namibians. According to Harber (1993, p. 6), the language was also used as a tool to foster an apartheid system in schools. The Education system of Namibia was based on racial and ethnic discrimination, which was known as ‘Bantu Education.’ This kind of Education incorporated all black 14 people’s education into the Bantu Education Department of South Africa’ (Mokopakgosi, 1996). Before independence there were eleven administrative Educational authorities in Namibia based on segregated homelands for Namibian ethnic groups such as Ovambo land, Kavango land, Damara land and Herero land etc. Harber (1993, p. 6-9) reports that ‘during apartheid, educational provision was not equal, because education for white children was funded from the tax, while the black children had to pay for their education in the form of fees’. According to Mokopakgosi (1996) the Bantu education system was characterised by a number of features such as fragmentation of education along racial and ethnic lines; unequal access to education and training at all levels of the education system, inefficiency in terms of low progression and irrelevance of the curriculum and teacher education programmes to the needs and aspirations of individuals and the nation as well as a lack of democratic participation. He stressed that ‘there were extreme inequalities in financial resource allocation to the eleven ethnic Education authorities. This means that most of indigenous Namibians were subjected to this kind of education which was specifically designed for them in order to discriminate against them and to make them submissive to their white masters. One can see that the education for an apartheid system was not in favour of indigenous Namibians. 1.3.2 Namibia’s post-independence Education system Since Namibia became independent on 21 March 1990, the new Government of the Republic of Namibia (GRN) has embarked on creating one unified structure for education administration in Namibia. Therefore, the new government decided to reform the education from the ethnically segregated education to one unified education system that was created to provide education to the Namibian nation on an equitable basis (Namibia, 1993). Therefore, after independence, there was a need to choose a language that would remove isolation and restriction in order to communicate with the outside world (Harber, 2005). The government has to adopt a language that may unite people who were previously segregated in homelands and subjected to Bantu education system. So, these changes were to be implemented immediately after independence; thus the curriculum which was previously based on ethnic groups should be reformed and the language of instruction should change from Afrikaans to English. English was chosen because it is believed to have global social, political, technological and economic power (Wikan et al., 2008). Hence, since the government wanted 15 to gain access to the international world, English was adopted as an official and medium of instruction at upper primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions in Namibia. The adapted curriculum should be in English at secondary level, and be based on leaner-centred approach as opposed to the previous teacher-centred approach. Due to the fact that learners first come to learn English at school, they tend not to master it well and their academic results are somehow affected. As mentioned earlier, Namibia is generally a multilingual country and this reflects Namibia’s rich diversity in cultures. Due to this cultural diversity and the existence of many indigenous languages, one finds a classroom comprised of learners from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, which makes it a multicultural/multilingual classroom. English language is a medium of instruction throughout the secondary level, which means from grade 8-12 in Namibian schools, while some indigenous languages are only used as a medium of instruction at lower primary level. 1.4 The Statement of the problem The language used in Namibian schools is in an ironic situation and it remains a very crucial issue in Namibian schools. The language policy of Namibia instructs teachers to teach learners in their mother tongues only up to grade three. Afterwards, the teaching will be in English throughout their study life (Dennis Banda, Maria Louise Mostert, & Gerd Wikan, 2012). This creates a problem because learners fail to cope with the English language especially reading and understanding. As a result Namibia is among the countries ranked with low literacy level in the world (Wikan et al., 2008). For this reason I think many Namibian learners, especially those in rural areas, find it difficult to cope with English simply because they speak their mother tongues at home and English at school. As a result they tend to be less fluent in English as a medium of instruction. According to LaDousa (2007) Namibian learners are exposed to a ‘sink or swim’ situation because they are instructed in English whether they like it or not. One can see that the government does not necessarily prioritize indigenous languages in the education system; thus some teachers and policy makers may not see the importance and roles of Namibian languages in education. Although English is not the first language for the majority of the Namibian learners, a good pass in English is the passport for admission to higher institutions of learning such as the University of Namibia and Polytechnic of Namibia. At these Institutions students are required 16 to pass with at least 25 points and a C or better grade in English in order to be admitted at the University or Polytechnic of Namibia. This makes it difficult for students to gain better grades in English, and prevents a number of learners who may not have obtained good grades in English from pursuing their further studies at these institutions. Incompetency in English seems to be a problematic, so that learners who are not competent enough in English at secondary level experience difficulties in obtaining high grades in English which may guarantee them an opportunity for admission at tertiary institutions. This leads to unemployed youth roaming in the street because of not being admitted at high institutions and being unable to get work due to lack of the skills required in the job market. This situation is cumbersome in Namibia, where there are people with different cultural, linguistic and economically disadvantaged backgrounds and lack of exposure to stimulating English learning resources. These Namibian learners are struggling with English, especially those in the rural schools where English is not used at home. Another contributing factor to the incompetency in English could be due to the lack of resources and facilities like electricity and internet facilities, TVs, and shortage of qualified English teachers in rural areas or lack of support from home because some parents have a little or no knowledge of the English language. 1.5 My motivation for doing this research During my five years of teaching in Namibia in both Ohangwena and Oshikoto Regions at junior secondary level, I came across a situation where learners are restricted to using only English during lessons. It has been my concern, but there was nothing I could do as an English teacher, but to follow and implement the ministerial language policy. Namibian language teachers, including those who teach English as a foreign language, are expected to firmly follow the language policies which prohibit learners from using their mother tongues in lessons. Apart from the ministerial educational language policy, some schools have also established their own language policies or departmental policies with regard to the use of languages during lessons. Due to the fact that the education language policy supports the use of only English language in lessons, I came across a situation where some Namibian teachers punish those learners who were found speaking their mother tongues in classes, either to ask them to pay a certain fee or do some other punishment they think suits. This is always done to impose the use of English and discourage the use of their local languages in classes. This creates a 17 tendency for learners to disrespect their mother tongues and feel that their mother tongues are inferior to English and of no use in future. During my teaching I experienced a situation where learners ask me questions in their mother tongues which I understand or could speak, but due to the language policy at our school which inhibits me as an English teacher from speaking local languages during lesson. I normally tell them either to ask questions in English or pretend to not have understood what the learners said, although I knew they may not have understood. This made me feel like exploiting my learners and denying them an opportunity to learn more to the best of their abilities. Due to this language restriction learners who are not fluent in English are discouraged from participating during our lessons. It is therefore, against this background as a Namibian teacher and a person who is passionate about languages and a person who always has my learners at heart, I got motivated to conduct research on this phenomenon. 1.6 Research objectives and research questions This research project is aimed: To investigate whether the phenomenon of translanguaging exists in Namibian schools To find out the reasons for translanguaging in lessons To find out whether translanguaging enhances learners’ understanding of the subject content. In order to embark on this investigation, I have formulated questions to guide my research study. My research project intended to answer the following questions 1. Does the translanguaging phenomenon exist in Namibian schools? 2. What could be the reasons for translanguaging in lessons in Namibian schools? 3. Do teachers and learners believe that translanguaging may enhance learners’ understanding of the subject content in Namibian schools? In this thesis I try to answer three questions about the occurrence, frequency and possibility of translanguaging in enhancing understanding of the subject content at junior secondary level in Namibian schools 1.7 Overview The thesis is structured in such a way that in chapter 1, I briefly give a background of the study, the statement of the problem and a brief description of the historical background of 18 the Namibian education system. I also outlined my research questions and research objectives. Chapter 2 of this thesis deals with theoretical frameworks - for instance constructivist (2.1), socio-cultural perspectives (2.2) and bilingualism (2.3), while chapter 3 presents methodological approaches used in data collection. In chapter 4, I present the findings from three schools. Chapter 5 deals with discussions of findings, recommendations, and the conclusion. 19 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This research was guided by three theoretical points of view, which presumed to give some scientific insights to my research problem. I based my arguments on these three theoretical perspectives: constructivist, socio-cultural perspectives and bi/multilingualism. I briefly discuss these theories from different scholars’ points of view and try to weigh my argument against these scientific grounds to make the connection to my research problem. This chapter presents the literature reviews for my study where I give a brief discussion of the following themes: constructivist perspectives (2.1), socio-cultural perspectives (2.2), bi/multilingualism (2.3) and translanguaging (2.4). 2.1 Constructivist perspectives Grounded on Vygotsky’s theory, human beings make use of symbols and tools like the language to interpret and regulate the world in which they live and relate to one another. This theory emphasizes the importance of culture and understanding of what occurs in society as a way how knowledge is constructed. With the reference to this theory, it is about considering the quality and the nature of the child’s environment, age, culture, and language and life experience before we conclude about their development. This theory advocates that knowledge does not exist independently of the children but is constructed within the society in which they find themselves. According to this theory, learners are not just passive recipients of objective ‘knowledge’ but they are active in a process of constructing knowledge by making sense of the world around them (Säljö, 1992). Constructivists assume that the learners connect new knowledge with their prior knowledge which they have acquired before coming to school. Thus a constructivist approach is more concerned with knowledge construction within the individual learners. Moreover, based on Vygotsky (1992), all aspects of learning are based on real life experiential learning which are learned before the child starts formal education; this means children come to school with some knowledge they have acquired from home and when they come to school they can acquire formal education and develop a new understanding of new knowledge which can be used in other contexts. Therefore, children are not only constructors of their knowledge but also members of the society and prevailing culture where they live. Thus their social interaction should involve parents, siblings, teachers, peers and all the important objects they find in their surrounding such as books and their favourite toys. In this view, learners are collectively and actively 20 constructing their own knowledge and understanding by making connections between school and the home environment. In my thesis I looked at how day-to-day conversation is carried out and how the cultural and linguistic values of the society are embraced. 2.2 Socio-cultural perspective My argument is also aligned to the socio-cultural perspective which points out that language is closely intertwined with thinking and it is a key tool in the thinking and learning process (Säljö, 1992). Socio-cultural theory stresses that learners’ interaction with the ‘expert’ adult teacher in a context of social interaction leads to understanding. I believe this interaction can be more enhanced if there are fewer barriers in the language used for communication. Moreover, people use language to think and to communicate their thoughts to others and learning is a communicative process that takes place in a dialogue both between teacher and learners and within the learners themselves (Säljö, 1992). This means that through participating in a social setting the learners can shape and are shaped by the values and norms of the group in which they find themselves (Säljö, 1992). This claim is also supported by John Dewey who states that interaction and cooperative learning lay a foundation for a socio-cultural theory; to him learning is situated within the social and cultural context in which it is constructed (Dewey, 2002). On a similar note, this claim is supported by (Dysthe, 2002), who highlights that ‘learning is a relationship between people through participating between them and through the language and communication in which language and communication are central aspects in learning’. This view presumes that knowledge is socially constructed through the interaction between language and thinking, hence embracing the core assumption of a socio-cultural theory (Lindberg, 2011). Grounded on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, Postholm (2013) acknowledges that the main reference to socio-cultural theory is the belief that there is a clear connection between language and intellectual thoughts and that the language is a tool for communication. In this view, the language is rooted in social activities and general genetic laws of cultural development. However, referring to Vygotsky’s theory of proximal development, the learning environment and the teacher have a great impact on pupils’ development because children do better if they get help from a more competent adult who can be a teacher, a parent or co-learners. I used this views in my thesis to look at how teachers uphold the language as a means of communication to accommodate local languages in the education system. 21 2.3 Bi-Multilingualism Bilingualism is defined as ‘the use of two or more languages of instruction at one point in a students’ school career (Cummins, 2000b) p. 169. A multicultural/multilingual classroom is one with learners from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. According to Creese and Blackledge (2010), a classroom is an ecological micro-system where one finds many different things (Creese & Blackledge, 2010).They suggested that it is important to explore these ecological details of interactional practices in the classroom because these micro ecologies have linguistic, political and pedagogical practices that may occur in that one classroom. However, Miller and Kostogriz (2009) affirms that a ‘classroom is a multi-voiced ensemble where different languages exit consciously or unconsciously’, they point out that teachers may find it difficult to deal with multicultural/lingual classes because when the class is more culturally diverse, it forces them to downplay the differences which could be seen as a ‘polluting of traditional values and beliefs.’ Nevertheless, the use of the mother tongue in the classroom depends on how learners believe in it. Thus it is wise to make learners aware of the language not only about its structure and semantics, but also about its social and cultural aspects that can make it either a ‘good’ or a ‘bad’ language (Miller & Kostogriz, 2009). Cummins (2000) is of the opinion that in a bilingual classroom there is a need to release the monolingual instructional approach and advocate the teaching of bilingual children by means of bilingual pedagogy in which two or more languages could be used alongside each other. He noted that in most cases bilingual classrooms are dominated by English language where teachers are mostly dominating the community languages. Researchers on language related issues contributed immensely to bilingualism situations and suggested some possible strategies to be used in bilingual education classrooms, for instance code switching or code mixing or translanguaging. Moreover, a multi lingual school should exert educational efforts that take into account and builds on the diversity of the languages and literacy practices that children bring to school (García, Skutnabb-Kangas, & Torres-Guzmán, 2006). This means teachers should recognize learners’ cultures and language and try to be creative and flexible in their lesson preparations and deliveries in order to cater for all the learners. In most cases, educators and policy makers insist on the separation of languages from which English is supposed to be strictly separated from the learners’ vernacular 22 languages although sometimes these learners are not well equipped with necessary English skills, and sometimes put strict rules forbidding learners from code switching in classrooms. I think this will contribute to learners’ poor performance and lack of motivation. I use this perspective to suggest possible adaptive strategies to teach in multilingual classrooms. 2.4 Translanguaging In this chapter, translanguaging as a key phenomenon is discussed synonymously with code switching with reference to different researchers. Translanguaging is the core phenomenon in this study. It is defined by (Garcia, Skutnabb-Kangas, & Torres-Guzman, 2006) as ‘the use of more than one language in a classroom’. Garcia referred to translanguaging as the ‘planned and systematic use of two languages inside one lesson which may help the learners to learn and understand through interactional communication with the teacher and their peers. Martin (2005) defined translanguaging ‘the use of local languages alongside the ‘official language’ of the lesson. He mentioned that it is a well-known phenomenon but for some reasons it is often criticized as a ’bad practice’ and mostly blamed on teachers who are incompetent in English. Baker (2011) states that code switching is a common phenomenon in bilingual classrooms. However Baker has noted that code switching is hardly institutionally recommended or academically supported. Thus, for it to be used in class or a school depends largely on the political will of the government and language policy makers with regards to the value attached to the local languages, expectation and intentions. Furthermore, its prohibition, allowance, discouragement and encouragements may also vary from teacher to teacher, school to school and from one country to another. Garcia suggests that translanguaging could probably be used in a such a way that the language inputs (reading and listening) will be done in one language and the language outputs (writing and speaking) may be done in another language. She believes that it is one way in which bilingual learners get engaged in the classroom. Besides, translanguaging could be a kind of ‘hybrid language’ use that is systematically and strategically making sense for the speakers and listeners in order to construct deeper understanding. On the other hand, translanguaging is a dynamic bilingualism with interconnected use of two languages to negotiate the meaning and situations (García et al., 2006). Additionally, Creece & Martin (2006) admit that there is a need for a complementary schooling which may be a response to historically monolingual ideology that ignores the 23 complexities of multilingualism because this can provide an environment where teachers and learners move flexibly between languages and can make it a perfect way of expressing mixture identities. On the same tone, Martin (1996) emphases that allowing the interaction of learners and teachers can lead to the negotiation of meaning, and offers a more effective way of assisting learners’ comprehension, but restricting the language can decrease their participation especially those who are not competent enough in the English language as they are discouraged from expressing themselves well. Martin (2005) claims that when code switching is used, it rather becomes a pragmatic response to the local classroom context and its practicality may be seen as teachers’ and leaners’ local, pragmatic, coping tactic and responses to the dominance of English language. Referring to the case of Hong Kong, she revealed that there are learners from different socioeconomic backgrounds with limited access to English resources, so these learners struggle to acquire English as a medium of instruction and may be find it difficult to use it as an academic language. According to Martin (2005) many bilingual teachers try to facilitate their learners’ comprehension through using code switching practices in order to provide a good level of bilingual support, so in cases where learners are just restricted to only English, they find it difficult to understand everything; therefore code switching could be a good practice to be used in multilingual/multicultural classrooms. One could have reason to feel that translanguaging could be used as an alternative way of using two languages in lessons, because it offers teachers and learners flexibility in their interaction and in the process allows the learners a great opportunity for participation in the lesson (Arthur & Martin, 2006). Creese and Blackledge (2008) are optimistic that using two languages may be seen a valuable resource that may contribute to the performance, lesson accomplishments and participation of learners in the lesson. It has been emphasized by some scholars that flexibility of teachers in bilingual classrooms can be a good instructional strategy to make a link between classroom participants and the social, cultural, community and linguistic domains of their lives (Greece & Blackledge, 2008).If bilingualism or multilingualism is allowed in the classroom, learning is maximized across learners rather than being constrained and inhibited from doing it by a monolingual assumptions or practice (Hornberger, 2002). 24 I concur with this notion because if translanguaging could be allowed in Namibia’s schools learning will occur. I will come back to this in Chapters 4 and 5. Adding to previous researchers, Lin (2006) states that code switching can be seen as a resource for countries with multiple languages like Malawi with its 16 languages, since it can help learners to understand subject matters in detail. Referring to the language situation in some African countries, code switching can allow children to understand subjects like mathematics well in their local languages while learning the national language. I agree in that sometimes there are certain terms or concepts that learners or even teachers may find difficulty to clarify in English but they may explain it well if they were allowed to use their mother tongues. Therefore, allowing code switching in classes may unlock all the language barriers in the classrooms. Referring to the study by Lin on her study of code switching between English and Cantonese, she acknowledges that code switching ensures understanding and motivation of learners.(Lin, 1999). This view was supported by Arthur (1996) on his study in Botswana, where practice allows Botswana teachers access to Setswana (a Botswana language), but restricts pupils from speaking Setswana in the class prevents learners from meaningful and critical engagement with the curriculum. This already gives us a clue that learners find it difficult to understand the content of the lesson if they were to only stick to the use of English alone. This could be the same situation in Namibia because restricting learners who are not competent enough in English may hinder their capacity to fully understand the content of the lesson. In cases where bilingual learners are forbidden to code switch, it is highlighted that they tend to be passive and have limited opportunities to engage in talk in the class, what Fuller & Snyder (1991) call ‘silent pupils with vocal’ teachers. Since this phenomenon is very crucial in Namibia’s situation for the development of adaptive teaching strategies in Namibian context, I did not put more weight on the theory due to limited space and number of words specified for my research,; thus I have deliberately down-prioritized theory in order to have enough time and space to rather present comprehensive empirical evidence of my study. Thus my study prioritizes the empirical evidence rather than focusing much weight on the theoretical framework, since based on the language policy stance, it seems Namibian teachers are turning a blind eye on the actuality of this phenomenon at school level. Thus I opted to gain evidence directly from teachers and learners who are faced with these challenges on a daily basis. 25 CHAPTER 3: METHOLOGOLY This chapter presents the methodological components for my research. This includes Research design (3.1), Population and Sample (3.2), Data production/collection (3.3), Observation (3.3.1), Interview (3.3.2) Data analysis (3.4), Ethical considerations (3.5), Trustworthiness (3.6) and Limitation of the study (3.7). 3.1 Research design This study was designed as a qualitative comparative case study. Researchers such as Kothari (2004), Flick (2007) and, Bryman (2008) have contributed immensely to the definition of a research design. According to Kothari (2004, p. 31) [a] research design is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Moreover the design of the investigation touches almost all aspects of the research such as details of data collection and the selection of data analysis (Flick, 2007). Furthermore, a research design is a plan for collecting and analyzing evidence that will make it possible for the investigator to answer whatever he/she has posed’ (Flick 2007, p. 36). Likewise, a research design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data (Kothari, 2004).’ On a similar tone, a research design is a framework for the collection and analysis of data (Bryman, 2008, p. 31). Additionally, it is concerned with turning a research question, a hypothesis or the ideas into a manageable project (Hammond, 2012). Research design is ‘a logical plan’ which covers the management of one’s research, such as scheduling and coordination of work (Yin, 2011). On the contrary, Hamersley and Atkinson (2007) p. 24 argue that ‘a research design should be a reflexive process which operates throughout every stage of the research project.’ A case study is defined by Robert Yin (2011) as “an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon’. On the same note, Hamel(1993) p. 1-3 states that a case study is ‘an in-depth study of the cases under consideration; she further emphasizes that case studies are monographic approaches that employ various methods such as interviews, participant observation and field notes’. However, Hamel (1993, p. 1) is of the opinion that it is more appropriate to define case study as ‘an approach’ although the term ‘case method’ suggests that it is indeed a method. 26 This argument was complemented by Merriam (2002) p. 178, who stated that ‘the case study is a specific, complex functioning thing.’ Additionally, Merriam (2002) asserts that ‘a case study has finite quality in terms of time, space and the number of cases.’ She gives examples on (p. 178) that case studies could be a classroom, a child or a particular profession. Furthermore, a case study provides a unique example of real people in a real situation, enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply by presenting them with abstract theories or principles (Cohen, 2011). Thus, Cohen (2011, p. 298) stresses that ‘case studies recognize and accept that there are many variables operating in a single case, and that in order to capture the implications of these variables, one needs to use more than one tool for data collection and as many resources as possible to provide evidence’. As my research was designed as case studies I have investigated three specific cases of schools in those three regions. This research was designed as a qualitative research which is defined by Flick (2007, p. 1-3) as ‘a situated activity that locates the observer in the world and consists of a set of interpretative materials and practices that make the world visible’. However, qualitative research is socially constructed by individuals in interaction with the world (Merriam, 2002). Furthermore, qualitative research is descriptive in nature (Merriam, 2002). Qualitative research covers contextual conditions, the social institutional and environmental condition in which peoples’ lives take place’ (Yin, 2011).While Merriam (2002, p. 179) states that the selection of cases is done purposefully but not randomly because a particular person, site, program, process, community or other bounded system is selected because it exhibits characteristics of interests to the researcher.’ I purposefully selected these regions because of my interest in finding the reality of translanguaging phenomenon in these regions. This study was designed as a qualitative research in order to get perceptions of teachers and learners on the translanguaging phenomenon in Namibian schools, particularly at junior secondary level. Flick (2007) has illustrated that in qualitative research, the observer turns the world into a series of representation, including field notes, interviews, conversation, photographs, recording and memos’. Thus, in my case, I employed three main data collecting tools, such as interviews, observations and audio-recording as my data collection tools. Furthermore, qualitative researches involve an interpretative, naturalistic approach by studying things in their natural settings, and attempting to make sense, or interpret them. Additionally, Kothari (2004) indicated that qualitative research is concerned with a subjective 27 assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. On the other hand, qualitative researchers seek to present personal experience in particular situations. This was applicable to my study because I looked into teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and opinions with regard to the use of translanguaging during lessons in Namibian schools. The data was collected from learners and teachers at their schools in their classrooms during lessons. I used this qualitative case study design to investigate the concept of translanguaging in three different schools from three different regions in Namibia. The findings from these three cases are processed and analyzed separately in terms of aspects such as location of the school, availability of educational facilities and expertise, teachers’ and learners’ perceptions. A qualitative research approach was suitable for my study due to the limited sample and the nature of the data which were collected. 3.2 Population and sample Population refers to ‘the universal units from which the sample is to be selected’ (Bryman, 2008, p. 168). Sampling is a process of selecting the segment from the population to be researched (Bryman, 2008). It is a subset of the targeted population (Bryman, 2008). The term ‘sampling’ according to Flick (2007, p. 39) is often associated with selecting the ‘right case from a known reservoir of cases.’ While Flick (2000, p. 25) asserts that during sampling, ‘the researcher decides not only which materials, case, person or group will be involved in the study, but also determines which comparisons are potential’. Flick (2007, p. 27) states that ‘sampling in qualitative research is not necessarily oriented on formality for example (random sampling), but selection of assumed population. To him, sampling in qualitative research is a way of setting up a collection of deliberately selected cases, materials or events of empirical example’. Moreover, Stake (2010) p. 33 suggests that ‘sampling in qualitative research should be iterative and flexible so that the researcher can adapt to conditions in the field and to new insights from data collection process. The selected group in my study is comprised of junior secondary school learners (grade 8, 9 and 10) and teachers from each of the selected schools in Khomas, Oshikoto and Ohangwena. Participants are randomly selected from the list of teachers and learners in those grades where a sample of three teachers, three learners and one Principal from each school is picked to draw the sample of my study. I have randomly selected 21respondents from the list of learners and teachers to draw the sample of my respondents. A total number of 30 28 respondents, comprised of 9 teachers, 18 learners and 3 principals/HODs, were picked. In each case, I requested a list of teachers for grade 8, 9 and 10 as well as the list of learners in those grades and randomly pick any teacher or any learner as a respondent to my research. The table 2. below shows the number participants per school per Region. Regions Khomas Oshikoto Ohangwena Number of Teachers 3 3 3 Number of Principals/HODs 1 1 1 Number of learners 6 6 6 Total number respondents 10 10 10 of Figure 2. Number of participants from each region. This sample was selected in order to have a sort of balanced views from both teachers and learners. The regions where these schools are located are different in many aspects such as availability of resources, expertise and locality. Khomas School is located in an urban environment, while Oshikoto is in semi-urban and Ohangwena in rural areas. 3.3 Data production/collection In order to collect reliable data, the researcher has to know the source where to collect his or her data. He/she needs to know also the procedures and tools to be used in collecting data for his/her research study. Data can be collected from numerous sources including written documents, records, workplaces, the Internet, surveys or interviews (Cohen, 2011). In this section I present and discuss research tools used for data collection in my research project. I opted to use three tools - observation (3.3.1), interviews (3.3.2) and audiorecording (3.3.3) - as methods of collecting my data as first-hand information from primary sources. This means that data were collected directly from the teachers and learners face-toface. I thought these methods were appropriate for my study since I intended to mix with my informants and get first-hand information directly from them. 3.3.1 Observation According to Kothari (2004) the observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behaviour. Referring to scientific observation, Kothari (2004, p. 96) states that ‘an observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a formulated research purpose, when it is systematically planned and recorded. Researchers such as Stake (2010, p. 90) have shown positivity towards this method by pointing out that many qualitative researchers in qualitative research prefer to use the 29 observation method because they are able to see and at the same time notice what, who, where, when and why things are happening. Researchers such as Kothari (2004) have outlined some strengths and weakness of the observation method. The strengths of this method have been highlighted by Kothari, that in the observation method, subjective bias is eliminated, especially if observation is done accurately. Furthermore, the information obtained from observation method tends not to be complicated by either the past behavior, or future intentions or attitudes of the respondents. He also indicated that observation method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and it is rather less demanding on the active cooperation between the instigator and respondents as could be the case in the interview or the questionnaire methods’. On the other hand, the weakness of observation method observation method has various limitations such as being an expensive method because it requires the presence of the investigator. Another limitation for observation is the limited sources of information due to the limited sample of the respondents. Kothari has also indicated the possibility of unforeseen factors such as time and inaccessibility to potential informants can also be experienced. In my case I used a non-participant observation where my respondents were not aware of what I was observing. I used observation check lists while audio-recording whatever happened at the same time (appendix D). During recording my focus was plainly on translanguaging during lessons. I chose this method because I wished to observe exactly what happens during lessons with regards to the use of language in Namibian schools during lessons. Therefore I managed to record the teachers and learners in their classrooms during lessons. This method seems to be an appropriate tool for my data collection, in order to experience the practicality of what exactly transpires in classes concerning the use of the English language and local languages during lessons. In order to control the situation during my data collection, semi-structured interviews and observation of events to be observed were listed in an interview guide and observation list. Whatever was happening in the classroom during lessons was recorded in order to capture instances of translanguaging and to experience the reality of language use in these classrooms. I observed everyday language usage by both teachers and learners during lessons when greeting learners, explaining class objectives, introducing new lessons, explaining difficult concepts, giving feedback, giving homework or classwork, when learners seemed not to understand and when summarizing the lesson and dismissing the learners. In the case of 30 learners I observed the language learners use when asking teachers, answering teachers, and interacting with other learners (see appendix D). After the observation, instances of translanguaging during lessons were transcribed but not everything that happened in the classroom, but only those relevant to my study. Doing this recording helped me to capture cases of translanguaging in the classrooms. 3.3.2 Interviews Interviews are a systematic way of talking and listening to people and are another way to collect data from individuals through conversations (Cohen, 2011). The researcher or the interviewer often uses open questions. Data is collected by the interviewer from the interviewee (Cohen, 2011). An interview is not simply concerned with collecting data about life but it is part of life itself (Teklemariam, 2005). Stake (2010, p. 95) states that ‘an interview can be used to find out a ‘thing’ that the researcher may be unable to observe’ Researches such as Kothari (2004, and Stake (2010) have confirmed that the interview method is commonly used in qualitative research studies. Kothari (2004) stated that a personal interviews method requires an interviewer (the person who asks questions in a face-to-face contact) and the interviewee (the person who answers the questions). Yin (2011, p. 134) stated that the good thing about interviews the relationship between the researcher (interviewer) and participant (interviewee) is created but not ‘inscripted’ (p. 134), so there are no questionnaires with a list of questions to be imposed on participants. Furthermore, interviews follow a conversational mode which leads to ‘a social relationship’ (p. 134). Also, this conversational mode creates the opportunity for two-way interaction where even participants ask the researcher Kothari (2004) states that during observation the interviewer who is to collect the information personally from the sources should meet participants in person. There are many different types of interviews such as personal interview, focused interviews, clinical interviews, non-directive interviews and unstructured interviews. In my case the personal interview methods was used because I was personally present there and have face to face conversation with my respondents. The semi-structured interview method was used where both teachers and learners were interviewed to get their views on the use of translanguaging during lessons. An interview guide consisting of semi-structured 31 questions to get the teachers’ and the learners’ opinion on the use of translanguaging in lessons was designed. The questions were open-ended for respondents to freely express their views about translanguaging. An interview guide with pre-defined questions set to get information directly from the learners and teachers was used. Although there was an interview guide, I was flexible in asking questions. I found myself diverting from the questions on my interview guide but still keep to the topic. I managed to record both learners and teachers during our interview sessions. Some researchers note that audio-recording has some advantages especially if the research intends to concentrate on the language, such as being able to review the materials later and possibly making a video of the observed phenomenon immediately in its natural way. My face-to-face interviews with respondents were recorded and questions that were not included in the interview guide were asked depending on the situation. I also codeswitched in cases where the interviewees needed more clarity on the questions. These interviews were formulated consisting of questions about language in general; learners’ mother tongue and the language used by both teachers and learners during lessons and reasons for or not using mother tongues during lessons (See appendix A and B).After the interviews, recorded conversations were transcribed into written conversation and the findings are presented in chapter 5. 32 3.4 Data analysis This section presents how data collected from my fieldwork were processed and analyzed. Methodically, data analysis refers to ‘the processing, editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they can be amenable for analysis’ (Kothari, 2004, p. 122). Since data are always collected in the raw, the researcher is always obliged to convert his/her data into workable portions that will make it possible for interpretation. Kothari clarified that data should always be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outlines laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. Therefore, after my data collection through the observation, interviews and recording as indicated earlier, the results were sorted out into categories which enabled me to interpret and discuss the findings in order to give meaning to my data. Data were analyzed according to cases investigated separately in chapter 4 and the findings are analyzed and presented for each school separately. I used codes, for example TA (teacher A) or LA (learners A), to represent the participants during my data analysis. The data are analyzed according to cases in which information obtained from learners and teachers are analyzed independently. Firstly, all the interviews guides that were used during data collection were read and transcribed. I recorded conversations during my interviews with teachers and learners. Secondary, I listened to the audio-recorded conversations and transcribed them into written form. From those forms the findings were sorted and analyzed under themes, for example those from observation and interviews for each region. The findings from teachers and from learners were analyzed separately. The findings were categorized under themes derived from research questions, for instance the questions about the existence, frequency and perceptions of translanguaging from both teachers and learners from each region. The findings for each case study are presented thematically in chapter 4.The results obtained are analyzed accordingly as obtained through observations and interviews of both teachers and learners in those three regions. 3.5 Ethical consideration According to Christian (in Flick, 2007, p. 69), there are several basic principles of ethically sound research. For the application of ethical principles, I informed my informants about their rights. It is imperative for the researcher to put ethical issues into consideration during his/her research. The researcher has to be conscious of ethical issues throughout his/ her research design and while in the field. 33 Since it is ethically unacceptable to deceive respondents through covert observation, my respondents were not interviewed without their consent. The participants’ privacy was respected and guaranteed them ultimate confidentiality and anonymity. In order to meet these, an authorization from Hedmark University College was obtained through the departmental supervisor. I also sought permission from Educational directors of each region which permitted me to go to selected schools. Before going in the classes, I got permission from the School Principals of the schools to talk to those teachers and learners. Before the interviews and observations began, I explained my intentions to the respondents. The aim for my research was explained as well as asking permission from them. The respect and dignity of all the stakeholders who participated in this research was highly sustained and exercised. I tried to exercise high professionalism and good conduct with my respondents. 3.6 Trustworthiness According to (Creswell, 2007) trustworthiness is about the credibility of the research findings. Credibility is concerned with the integrity of the conclusion which is generated from the research findings (Bryman, 2008). For Hammond (2012, p. 131), reliability refers to the consistency of the measure of the concept. He stressed that a reliable research project should display consistency, and works almost in a similar or the same way when it is repeated. Therefore, reliable research should clearly present findings that are testable and clear enough to be interpreted in the same way by different people. The trustworthiness and the truthfulness of the research refer to the validity, reliability and reflexivity of the research findings. In order to enhance the credibility and validity of my research I used different data collection methods such as observing both teachers and learners, interviewing both teachers, learners and head teachers. While interviewing teachers and learners, our conversations were recorded to capture things that may have been omitted to cover the actuality of language usage during the lesson, and took some notes while observing to have a sort of balanced empirical evidence for my findings. Although there are few records of studies on this phenomenon in Namibia, it is my hope that this study contributes to the knowledge and gives some insights on translanguaging phenomenon in Namibia. Since Translanguaging is not broadly researched in Namibia, this study may contribute to the knowledge of the translanguaging phenomenon in Namibia. 34 The findings from this research may alert curriculum designers and policy formulators on the existence of translanguaging and may help them to design more flexible policies that may accommodate translanguaging in Namibian schools. This study may yield some firsthand information on the use of native languages alongside English as a media of instruction during lessons. Hopefully this research may assist curriculum designers and policy formulators in developing guidelines regarding translanguaging in Namibian schools. 3.7 Limitations of the study This study faced some limitations, for instance: Limited literature on this phenomenon in the case of Namibia leads to inadequate information to contribute to strong scientifically based arguments and more reliable evidence rooted in scientific research on this topic in Namibian case. The honesty and credibility of the information obtained from the participants during observation and interviews may be unrealistic because teachers may have adjusted their way of teaching during my presence and possibly have used different ways of teaching from what they normally do. Financing. Although I got some financial assistance from Hedmark University College travelling from one region to another was not easy and due to protocol concerning permission from different authorities. Therefore, travelling and telephone calls exceeded my budgets for this exercise. Although this study was confined to just three schools some financial constraints occur due to the remoteness of regions from one another. Generalizability. Based on the findings and opinions expressed by the teachers and learners on this phenomenon, it is up to the readers to take a broad view of the findings to the rest of other regions due to the limited number of participants. Trust. Due to the fact that respondents may not be familiar with researches being conducted at their schools before, they may have suspicions about the researcher and may not give reliable information out of fear of what the information would be used for. Time constraints and protocol. Due to the fact that the researcher had to seek permission from different authorities to conduct the research, a lot of time was consumed due to delays, since some officials seemed to be reluctant to authorize me to start with my data collection in their regions. 35 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS This chapter presents how the data were processed and analyzed. The results of the research findings obtained from three schools are presented based on themes from the research questions as formulated from the methods that were used in data collection, i.e. observations, interviews and audio-recordings. I assigned some codes such as TA to represent all the teachers for grade 8 from each school, TB to represent all grade 9 teachers and TC to represents all grade 10 teachers and TX to represent all the Heads of department from each school. I also have abbreviated terms such as (OHR) for Ohangwena Region, (OSHR) for Oshikoto Region and (KHR) for Khomas Region. The results are presented separately for each region. Each case was divided into three sections, namely, school environment, teachers and translanguaging, teachers’ usage of translanguaging, teachers’ reported use, and teachers’ perceptions of translanguaging, students and translanguaging students’ reported use of translanguaging and students’ perceptions on translanguaging. The discussions of the findings will be discussed in chapter 5. 4.1 Khomas case As indicated in Figure.1 of the map of Namibia in chapter 1, Khomas region is one of the 13 regions in Namibia. A school was selected from this region for this study. This section presents the findings from interviews and observations obtained from the selected school in the Khomas Region. There were ten participants from this school, comprising two learners from grade (8, 9, 10), and three teachers from each grade (8, 9, 10). 4.1.1 School environment The selected school from this region is located in the suburb of Katutura on the outskirt of the City of Windhoek, the capital city of Namibia. It is a combination of Junior and Senior Secondary level, i.e. from grade 8-12. It is a public school, which means it is funded by the state and the employees are paid by the government. This school seems to be an old school, but the buildings and other facilities are still in a good condition. Based on my observations there are well-sized and well-ventilated classrooms. The learners sit in rows sharing one small desk with little spaces between them. According to the TX of the school, the school is equipped with adequate chairs and desks for all learners. The school has electricity and running water. There is a library where both teachers and learners can borrow books. There is a tuck-shop where one can buy snacks. The staffroom is well equipped with good-looking furniture. According to the TX the school 36 has a shortage of some teaching aids and text books for learners. He mentioned that sometimes learners share text books. There are some computers used by learners who take computer classes and one computer used by 37 teachers. The school seems to be well equipped with well-qualified teachers. There are four heads of departments for Languages, Humanity subjects and Science and Mathematics. All of these heads of departments have their own offices. The language policy at this school is strictly English as per ministerial policy so English is used as a medium of instructions. The learners are expected to use English in all lessons except during their mother tongue lessons. The school seems to be a multicultural and multilingual school because I spotted learners of different languages. In spite of English being used as an official language and the language of instruction at this school, I observed that there are learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds who were speaking their mother tongue in and outside the classrooms. According to the TX of this school, there are learners whose mother tongues are not even offered at this school. As a result, they do not attend mother tongue lessons. There are learners of different mother tongues, for instance Rukwangari, Otjiherero, Silozi, Damara/Nama and Oshiwambo (with its dialects such as Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga, Oshikwambi etc.) and Afrikaans and Portuguese. The most common local language used by learners at this school is Afrikaans. According to the TX the majority of learners in this region could speak more than one local language and they understand each other very well. For example, LA reported that her mother tongue is Otjiherero, but that she could also speak and understand Oshiwambo, Afrikaans and Nama/Damara. According to TA the learners at this school seem to cope well with English since English has been their language of instruction from lower primary and upper primary levels. He is of the opinion that learners in this region are more exposed to media and that makes it easier for them to acquire English language and be fluent in English. I only managed to observe one lesson where there was teaching actually taking place which was a revision in preparation for the exams. 37 4.1.2 Teachers and translanguaging This section deals with the results obtained from both teachers and learners. It includes both teachers’ and learners’ usage, reported use and perceptions of translanguaging. 4.1.2.1 Teachers’ usage of translanguaging This section presents the results from my observations of the teachers regarding the existence of translanguaging in Khomas. Fig. 5 (below) presents the language used by teachers during my observations in KHR. LANGUAGE NORMALLY USED IN LESSONS Language used by teachers when greeting learners TA explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners English x x x x x x x x x x x TB greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand x x x x x x x x x TC summarizing the lesson dismissing learners greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners x x x x x x x x x x x x x Local languages Figure 3. The language used by teachers in lesson (observation). 38 Translanguaging Looking at the results obtained from the teachers in KHR one can see that teachers in KHR did not use translanguaging during my observations in their lesson. Although this lesson was a revision, there was no point where the teacher used any of the local languages. 4.1.2.2 Teachers’ reported use The following are the results from interviews with the teachers related to the existence of translanguaging in KHR. The Fig. 3(below) presents the response from teachers on the daily language use during lessons. Languages English language TA TB TC x x x Mother tongue Others Figure 4. The language used by teachers daily. Based on the information obtained from the interviews with the teachers, the table above shows the language used by teachers in their lesson in KHR. The results show that they use English language during lessons on daily basis. The teachers have indicated that they strictly use English language by giving reason such as; English is an official language in Namibia and the language of instructions. According to TA, she could not use any local language because she does not speak the learners’ mother tongue, since she is from Caprivi Region, and her mother tongue is not offered at that school. When teachers were asked to indicate how often they use translanguaging during their lessons, the following responses were obtained from the teachers in Khomas Region. The table below shows the responses of teachers on the frequency of TL in the school in KHR. Languages Frequency English language (EL) Always Often Sometimes Teachers TA TB TC x x x Rarely Never Translanguaging (TL) Always Often Sometimes Rarel y Never x x x Figure 5.The frequency of translanguaging by teachers (interviews) From the results of the table above, one can see that TA and TB have indicated that they never use translanguaging in their lessons, unlike TC, who indicated that she does translanguage but only rarely. This may make one to think that translanguaging is not 39 prevalent among teachers and learners in KHR. The teachers have given some reasons why they strictly use the English language, for instance. TA:’ I never code –switch (translanguage) because I do not speak their (learners’) mother tongue and they do not speak mine’ TB: ‘I always encourage them to speak English because it is an official language and they need to improve their English. It is also not fair to use mother tongues because we have a mixture of mother tongues; it is not fair for those whose mother tongues are not common here’ TC: ‘They try to speak their mother tongues because of the language barrier, but I discourage it so that they should practice to improve their English skills.’ All the teachers have reported that they always discourage learners from using their mother tongues in lessons. This shows that translanguaging is not really supported at this school. The responses from the teachers on why they use or do not use translanguaging in their lessons the teachers in Khomas were as follows: TA: ‘Translanguaging occurs in lessons to clarify difficult concepts, especially when the teacher realized that some learners could not get what she/he is trying to teach them, ‘So, you (the teacher) just code switch quickly and then continue in English just to make it clear and go back to English.’ TB: ‘Not in my class because we have a mixture of cultures, it will not be fair to those learners whose mother tongues are not common here.’ TC: ‘Translanguaging occurs in lesson due to language barriers, so learners try it but we discourage it.’ TX: ‘Translanguaging does not happen here except in their mother tongue lessons.’ According to the teachers in KHR, they discourage learners from code switching, for instance TA has mentioned that she does not allow learners to use local languages in her lessons because, ‘they cannot used their local language here’. TB has stated that she encourages the learners to speak English in case they try to speak their mother tongue in her classes. TC also indicated that she encourages learners to speak English at all times. The TX of the school has reported that they strictly use English, even if they understand local languages. She said’ we cannot entertain local languages in school except outside or during break time.’ One can see that these teachers do not use translanguaging due to reasons mentioned earlier. 40 4.1.2.3 Teachers’ perceptions on translanguaging The responses from the teachers reveal that translanguaging is not really supported by teachers at this school, although some of them have acknowledged its necessity. On the other hand, teachers in KHR have also displayed some degrees of positivity toward translanguaging. For example, TB is of the opinion that local languages should be used, especially the local language which is commonly known in the community. She gave an example of languages like Afrikaans; she noted that each region has a dominant local language which the teachers could allow to be used parallel to the language of instruction during lessons. However, TA has stressed that she believes that translanguaging can be really useful and learners may understand the subject content better. She believes translanguaging to be very helpful ‘I am sure learners will understand and the results will also improve’ She feels if local languages were accommodated in lessons, it would certainly help learners to understand the subjects better. TB has also indicated that if one of the common local languages in each region were allowed to be used concurrently with the official language; it could assist learners to understand better. She said, ‘We appreciate the use of English, but there is a need to accommodate local languages in our lessons because local languages may help learners to understand the subject content better.’ The teachers at this school have also mentioned some disadvantages of translanguaging. For instance TB and TC replied that translanguaging may cause confusion. TB is of the opinion that learners should not use their mother tongue during lessons because they need to practice and improve their English skills, whereas translanguaging consumes a lot of time allocated to the period. The teachers have also noted some effects of learners’ mother tongue on their learning. Teacher TB at this school feels that learners’ mother tongue has effects on their learning to some extent. She said, it affects their English pronunciation. She mentioned that there are some local languages without some English sounds for example, an Oshiwambo learner may pronounce the word ‘remember’ as ‘remember’, which sometimes confuses other English speakers. TB also agreed that the mother tongue really affects the learning, especially the language; she noted that learners can come up with new terms that are either English or their mother tongue, for instance kathingiki ( something small) which she believe has derived from an English word ‘ a thing’ and Oshiwambo word ‘oka’ which denotes something small. TX has noted the effect of local languages on the accent and pronunciation of English which he believes has been influenced by learners’ mother tongues. The overall results from 41 the teachers show that they have acknowledged the importance of translanguaging but they do not practice it at this school. 4.1.3 Learners and translanguaging This section presents the results from students in Khomas region. 4.1.3.1 Usage of translanguaging The following are results obtained through observation looking at the language use used by the learners during lesson in the Khomas region. Language used by Learners when: LA Asking question to the teacher Answering question from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher LB Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying good bye to the teacher LC Asking question to the teacher Answering question from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with others in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher English Local languages Translanguaging x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Figure 6. The language used by learners (observation) Looking at the results from learners in KHR one can see that translanguaging is prevalent among the learners especially when they are talking with their fellow learners. During my observations in the lessons I did not come across cases of translanguaging by teachers in Khomas region, possibly because there was not much teaching taking place since learners were writing examination, but in corridors I bumped into learners speaking their mother tongue with friends. 42 4.1.3.2 Students’ reported use of translanguaging The following results were obtained from the interviews with the learners concerning the frequency of translanguaging among the learners in Khomas region. Fig.7.below presents the results about the language used among the learners themselves Languages Frequency Learners English Language Always Often LA LB LC x x x Sometimes Rarely Never Translanguaging Always Often Sometimes Rarely x x x Figure 7. The frequency of translanguaging among the learners in OSHR (interviews). From results above one could see that learners in Khomas Region use translanguaging from time to time especially when talking to each other. The learners confirmed that they normally code switch with their friends at school and at home with their family and neighbors. The Fig. 8. below shows the languages used by learners when code switching among each other. Languages LA LB LC Mother tongue Otjiherero Damara Oshiwambo Other languages English, Afrikaans English, Afrikaans, French English, Afrikaans, French Figure 8. The language used to translanguage between learners in KHR. The FIG.8 above present the language used by learners when code switching either at school or at home with their families and neighbours. This shows that these learners are multilingual and could speak more than one language either at home or school. The learners were also asked if they get any assistance from their siblings or parents on their academic work and which languages used by their parents or siblings when assisting them with academic stuffs. The following were the responses from the three learners in KHR. (a) Learners get support from siblings or parents on school work LA LB LC Yes No Sometimes Rarely Yes Yes Yes LANGUAGES (b) The language used by households to assist with school work? LA LB LC English Mother tongue English English English Otjiherero Damara Figure 9. Learners support from home in KHR. 43 Other languages Never The results from the interview show that learners get assistance from home and both English and their local languages are used. This shows how important local languages are in the education of these learners because their parents use these local languages to help them with school work. 4.1.3.3 Students’ perceptions on translanguaging The following are findings from learners in Khomas Region regarding their views on the use of translanguaging, learners responded as follows. LA feels that teachers should use translanguaging to clarify difficult concepts or words to be clear. ‘When the teacher or my fellow learners use translanguaging, it makes me understand better, because sometimes I do not understand a certain word but if someone tells me in my mother tongue, I understand it better.’ LB also feels that translanguaging should be used to make learners understand, while LC feels that translanguaging should be used for better understanding to communicate properly and translate later. The two learners LA and LB have shown positivity in the use of local languages concurrently with English because they believe it could help students to understand better. Apart from the advantages of translanguaging LC and LA have also highlighted some weaknesses of translanguaging. They feel the use of mother tongue simultaneously with the language of instruction in lessons causes’ confusion. LA feels that translanguaging may also disturb the lesson because some learners may not be familiar with the local languages and may feel discriminated. LC feels that learners at this school are fluent in English since they have been taught in English from grade 1, so for him it is not really necessary. He feels that translanguaging may cause learners to just rely on their mother tongues and may not improve their English literacy. On the issue of the subject content the learners reported that they believe that translanguaging assists them in understanding the subject content very much. LA states that ‘As long as you understand something in your mother tongue, you can also understand it in other languages’ LC shares the same feeling with LA because she believes that translanguaging can really help learners to understand the subject content because sometimes there are certain words or terms learners are not familiar with but when explained in their mother tongue they understand well. She said ‘using our mother tongue unlocks your minds and makes you understand, ‘It also makes the subject more interesting because if you understand everything, you get the whole meaning of what the teacher is trying to teach you’ 44 4.2 Oshikoto case As indicated in chapter 1, Oshikoto Region is also one of the 13 regions in Namibia that is located in the central Northern part of Namibia. Like in the other cases, I have chosen one school from this region to collect data for my study. This section presents the findings obtained from the chosen school in Oshikoto Region. Similar to other Regions where I conducted my research, ten participants were selected from this school consisting of two learners from each grade 8, 9, 10), three teachers from each grade (8, 9, 10) and one HOD. The findings are presented in the same structure as the previous case. The discussions of the findings are discussed in chapter 5. 4.2.1 School environment The selected school in Oshikoto Region is located in in the vicinity of Ondangwa town, one of the developing towns in the Northern Namibia (see Fig. 1). This school is a combination of Junior and Senior Secondary levels, that is, from grade 8-12. It is also a public school where all the employees are paid by the Government, and the school is subsidized by the government. The school seems to be an old school, but there are new structures which have probably been built after independence and there is still an uncompleted structure. Based on my observation there are well-sized and well-ventilated classrooms, but there is not enough space between the learners’ desks. There were 35 learners sitting in rows sharing one small desk. According to the TX of the school, the school is equipped with chairs and desks, but some of the chair and desks are broken and need to be repaired. The school has electricity and running water. There is a library where learners can borrow books. There is also a wellequipped computer lab with laptops that are used by both teachers and learners who attend computer classes. According to the TX, the school has a shortage of text books for learners. Although there are some subjects with not enough text books, most of learners have text books; especially there are enough English books for everyone. The school seems to be wellequipped with well-qualified teachers. There are 3 heads of departments for example. The Head of Department for languages, Head of Department for Science and Mathematics and Head of Department for Humanity subjects. Due to lack of enough rooms, two of the HODs the one for the Languages and the one for Humanity are sharing one office. Learners were asked whether they get any assistance from their siblings or parents on their academic work, for example homework and projects, and which language their parents 45 or siblings use when assisting them. The all confirmed that they get assistance from parents and siblings. The language policy at this school per ministerial policy is supposed to be strictly English which is used as a medium of instructions. Learners are expected to use English in all lessons except in during their mother tongue lessons. When I visited some classes, I observed that some teachers at some point used both mother tongue and English during their lesson. The school seems to be a bilingual school because most of the learners speak two languages, that is, Oshindonga and English. There are few learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. According to TX most of the learners at this school speak Oshindonga and Oshikwanyama as their mother tongues. The most common local languages used by learners at school are Oshindonga and English as an official language. According to all of the three learners who were interviewed their mother tongue is Oshindonga. They all confirmed that they speak and understand Oshiwambo languages (Oshindonga, Oshikwanyama, Oshingandjera, oshikwaluudhi and other Oshiwambo dialects) and English as the medium of instruction. The TX of OSHR has reported that they experience some problems concerning the use of language in lesson due to the environment where the school is located, because all the learners at this school speak the same mother tongue, which they prefer to use during lesson rather than English, even though English is the language of instruction which they have been taught from low primary and upper primary levels. The TX is of the opinion that some of learners reside in rural areas, are not exposed to media such as TV, computers and even newspapers because they do not have electricity at their homes, which makes it difficult for them to acquire basic English skills. 4.2.2 Teachers and translanguaging This section deals with the results obtained from teachers and learners. It includes teachers’ and learners’ usage, reported use and perceptions of translanguaging. 46 4.2.2.1 Teachers’ usage of translanguaging Results from observation regarding the existence of translanguaging during lessons in OSHR are presented below. The Fig.10 below presents the results obtained from observing the teachers during lessons in OSHR. Language used by teachers when Local Languages English TA greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners TB greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners TC greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners Translanguaging x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Figure 10. Language used by teachers in OHR (observation) As the Fig.10 shows, the teachers mainly use English. However, I noticed that they also drew upon their mother-tongues. During my visit in this lesson, TA and TB were from time to time translanguaging as shown on the table above. During my class visit I came across some incidences of translanguaging: for instance, in TA’s lesson where she was teaching evolution of species, gave an example such as ‘aantu ohaa monika ya fa oondjima’ ashike oondjima ihadhi popi’ (people look like monkeys but monkeys could not speak). She also told those learners who forgot their books at home to bring them next time,’ Uumbo auhe na uye 47 koskola” (all the books should come to school). The other incidence of translanguaging was in TB’s lesson when she told the learners to write properly, she said, ‘Tamu shanga nawa nawa yee’ (you should write it very well). Even though TC has also replied that he sometimes use translanguaging, he did not code-switch in my presence. Looking on the results, one could see that the teachers used to translanguage at different times during their lessons. Summing up, translanguaging is occurring at this school and teachers use it commonly when explaining difficult concepts, when learners seem not to understand and when summarizing the lesson, which shows the importance of it during lesson delivery. 4.2.2.2 Teachers reported use of translanguaging. Results from my interviews with teachers in Oshikoto with regard to the existence of translanguaging are presented as follows. The Fig.11. below presents the language used by teachers during my observation in OSHR. Languages TA TB TC English language X X x Mother tongue X X Others X X Figure 11. Language used by teachers (interviews). Looking on the results obtained through the interviews with the teachers in OSHR, the Fig.11 above shows that two of the teachers have indicated that they use English language and sometimes local languages during lessons on a daily basis. TA and TB reported that they sometimes use local languages in their lessons while teacher C uses only English. The teachers gave some reasons why they resort to the use of mother tongues during their lessons as follows: TA: ‘I use mother tongue sometime to clarify concepts.’ TB: ‘I use translanguaging sometimes for the learners to understand well and get a clear picture of what I am teaching them’ TC: I use 95% English and 5% mother tongue in my lessons just in case there are some learners who seem not to be on track. Based on the teachers’ responses, one can see that translanguaging is to some extent resorted to in OSHR. 48 When teachers were asked to indicate how often they translanguage during lessons, the following responses were obtained from both teachers in OSHR. The Fig.12 below presents the frequency of translanguaging by the teachers in OSHR. Languages Frequency English language TA TB x x TC x always Often Sometimes rarely Never Translanguaging often Always sometimes rarely X X x Figure 12. The frequency of translanguaging by teacher in OSHR (interviews). From the Fig.12 above one can see that TA and TB have indicated that they sometimes translanguage in their lessons. TC has also indicated that she translanguages rarely. The teachers have given some reasons why they use translanguaging in their lessons, for instance, TA:’ I sometimes use the mother tongue to clarify concepts that learners seem not to understand well in English, so I use only their mother tongue to explain difficult concepts.’ TB: ‘I use the mother tongue sometimes in my lesson for my learners to understand well and get a clear picture. I think using the learners’ mother tongue could help them to understand’ TC: ‘I use about 5% of their mother tongues in case there are some learners who seem to be not on track. It really helps learners to understand, but they may rely on it and lack English skills.’ The responses from the interviews with these teachers show that they believe that translanguaging is necessary since the teachers have acknowledged that it helps learners to understand better. 4.2.2.3 Teachers ‘perceptions on translanguaging The teachers in Oshikoto have reported that they discourage learners from using the mother tongue during lessons. For example, TA has mentioned that whenever a learner tries to speak to her in mother tongue, she always responds in English and tells him/her to speak English. TB has said she encourages the learners to speak English, but sometimes explains in Oshiwambo too. TC also indicated that he encourages learners to speak English at all times. The TX reports, ‘the moment a learner talk to me his or her mother tongue, I respond in English to discourage it.’ He also noted the lack of motivation from those learners who could not speak or pronounce some English words properly. He said ‘they feel shy and inferiors to the other who seem to be good in English.’ 49 Never The results reveal that translanguaging occurs in Oshikoto Region, but it is not supported by the teachers at this school in spite of them agreeing that they sometimes code switch to clarify difficult concepts. The Teachers at the school in Oshikoto region have also shown some degrees of positivity toward translanguaging, for example, TA believes that local languages should be used in order to help learners understand well. She stated that ‘a language is a part of culture, so learners should not be discouraged from using their mother tongues.’ She feels that the mother tongue should be used concurrently with the language of instruction for the learners to understand concepts well and get the meaning correctly, Similarly, TB is optimistic that translanguaging gives learners a clear understanding of the subject content. She stated that ‘It should not be limited, it should be allowed.’ TC has also indicated that it does not really mean teachers should code switch while teaching, but where there is a need teachers should code switch for the learners to understand. She states, ‘although we are forced by the policy to use English as a medium of instruction, for me, I apply both English and local languages intentionally to make learners understand.’ The teachers at this school have highlighted some advantages of translanguaging. For instance, TA strongly believes that translanguaging can be used for better understanding of the concept and to recognize the existence and the importance of local languages because, she believes that language and culture are inseparable. TB has agreed translanguaging gives a clear understanding to the learners and she believes it should be allowed in lessons. TC feels that it is advisable to use both English and local languages to make learners understand better. On the other hand, TA and TB have shown some degrees of reservation about translanguaging. They admitted that it is a good thing since it helps students to understand better, but it needs a lot of time. TC feels that translanguaging may cause learners to be lazy and reluctant to learn English. The teachers in Oshikoto have noticed some effects of mother tongues on the learning. TX revealed also that learners have a tendency of being quiet or even absenting themselves from her lessons when they could not express themselves in English but the teachers insists on them speaking English. He believes that if learners were taught in their mother tongues, they could grasp everything that the teachers are teaching them. He feels that the incompetence of learners in English contributes immensely to the poor performance of some learners in their examinations. The teachers have also reported on the effects of the mother tongue on the learning. They mentioned that the mother tongue of the learners influences the accent and 50 pronunciation of English. TX has noted also that some learners develop negative attitudes towards their mother tongues because they do not see any value in them since they are always discouraged from using their mother tongues, but in reality they use these languages every day at home with their families. Summing up, the teachers have acknowledged the necessity of translanguaging in lessons; they also confirmed that they use it sometimes in case there is a need for using it. 4.2.2 Students and translanguaging This section presents the results from students in Oshikoto region, first their usage of translanguaging, the reported use and their perceptions of translanguaging. 4.2.2.1 Student usage of translanguaging The Fig .13 below presents the language used by learners during lessons. Language used by Learners when English LA Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher LB Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher LC Asking questions to the teacher Answering the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with others in the classroom Asking for permission Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher Local languages Translanguaging x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Figure 13. The language used by learners in OSHR (observation). As can be seen from Fig. 13 above, the results from my observation on the language used by learners among themselves show that learners translanguage commonly when talking with fellow learners and at home with their family, they also translanguage sometimes with 51 their teachers especially when asking the teacher, interacting with their peers, discussing with their colleagues and when saying goodbye to the teacher. 4.2.2.2 Students’ reported use of translanguaging. The learners were asked to indicate if they speak other local languages apart from their mother tongues. Figure 14 below present local languages that learners use among each other. Languages LA LB LC Mother tongue Oshindonga Oshindonga Oshindonga Other languages English, Oshikwanyama English, Oshikwanyama English, Oshikwanyama Figure 14. Language used to translanguage among learners in OSHR. This results shows that learners at this school speak other languages apart from their mother tongues and the official language. Apart from English they used in the classroom they also reported speaking other local languages at home. These learners have indicated that they sometimes use their mother tongue with their teachers. This shows that local languages are commonly used by the learners among themselves. I can see that sometimes they use mother tongue with their teachers, but they commonly use it among themselves. The following is the results from the interviews with the learners concerning the frequency of translanguaging among them. The Fig.15 below presents the results about the language used among the learners themselves. Languages English language Frequency Always Often Translanguaging Sometimes Rarely Never Always Often Sometimes Rarely Learners LA LB LC x x x x x x Figure 15. The frequency of translanguaging among learners in OSHR (interviews) Based on the results obtained from the interviews with the learners in OSHR, the results in Fig. 15 shows the frequency of translanguaging among the learners at this school, one can see that learners at this school use translanguaging at different intervals. They have mentioned that they code switch mostly with their friends at school and at home with their family and neighbours. LA and LC have reported that they always use translanguaging with their teacher while LC indicated that he uses it sometimes. From the results it is evident that translanguaging really occurs in Oshikoto Region. From the results one could see that the 52 Never most common language used by learners in Oshikoto is Oshindonga but the learners could also speak other local languages as well. This shows the significance of local languages in the education of these learners. The learners were also asked if they get any assistance from their siblings or parents in their academic work and which languages are used by their household when assisting them with academic matters. The following were the responses from the three learners in OSHR. (a) A) Learners get support from home Yes LA Yes LB LC Yes Yes No Rarely (b) Languages by households to assist with school work Languages LA LB LC English English English English Mother tongue Oshindonga Others Oshindonga Figure 16. Learner support from home in OSHR. From the results obtained from the interviews with the learners in Oshikoto region, it shows that all the three learners who were interviewed get assistance from home with their school work either in their mother tongue or in English. The results show also that these learners speak their mother tongue and English as a second language as well as other local languages. This shows the importance of the mother tongues in the education of these children because one can see that they are sometime assisted by parents in their mother tongues at home. The results regarding why learners report that they translanguage in lessons are as follows; those three learners gave reasons why translanguaging occurs in the classroom, for example: LA: Sometimes we do not understand English properly, so we use our mother tongue’ LB: ‘Sometime you do not understand English, so you use your mother tongue’ LC: ‘Translanguaging should be used because it helps us to understand better. I code switch but not much, only when it is needed just to make others understand’. Looking at the responses of the learners one could see that they really find it necessary to use their mother tongues at some point in time especially when they do not understand. 53 In summary, learners at this school have confirmed from the interviews that they use translanguaging, this is also an evident from the number of languages these learners could speak as indicated in Fig.14. This means local languages have a role to play in the day-to-day communication of these learners either at school or at home. 4.2.2.3. Students’ perceptions on translanguaging Two of the interviewed learners believe that local languages should not only be used in English periods but in other subjects it is good for the learners to understand and LC is also positive to the use of local languages alongside English language because she believes that translanguaging could indeed help students to understand better. She states’ when learners do not understand, teachers should use mother tongues to clarify difficult concepts to make us understand.’ The learners in Oshikoto also specified some advantages and disadvantages of translanguaging. All the learners in OSHR have agreed that translanguaging really helps learners to understand the subject content very well. LA suggests ‘when we do not understand, teachers should clarify difficult concepts in our mother tongues to make us understand.’ All of these learners have stressed that translanguaging can really help them to understand the subject content very well. Apart from their optimism about translanguaging, they also noted some disadvantages of translanguaging. For instance LA reports that translanguaging may cause learners not to practice their English anymore. LB feels that the use of the mother tongue at the same time with English as a medium of instruction in lessons may cause confusion. She feels that local languages should only be used in mother tongue lessons. In sum, based on the results and responses from both teachers (as shown in Fig.12) and learners (in Fig.15), it is evident that translanguaging is common in Oshikoto Region and the reasons are highlighted by both teachers and learners. The teachers have reported that they sometimes use translanguaging, especially when explaining difficult concepts or when learners seem not to understand, while learners reported that they normally translanguage mostly with their fellow learners and sometimes with teachers when they do not understand However, teachers have confirmed that they normally discourage the tendency to use the mother tongue and that they mostly encourage learners to use English as much as possible. 54 4.3 Ohangwena case As indicated in Fig.1 Ohangwena region is one of the 13 regions in Namibia where the research was conducted. A school was selected from this region for this study. The selected school in this region is located in a rural area. This section presents the findings obtained from a school in Ohangwena Educational Region. Like in the other two Regions, ten participants were selected from this school that comprised two learners from each grade (8, 9, and 10), three teachers from each grade (8, 9 and 10) and one HOD. The results are presented in the same way as the previous cases. 4.3.1 School environment The selected school from this Region is situated in a rural area in the far Northern part of Namibia in Omulonga Constituency of Ohangwena Region. It is a combination of lower primary, upper and Junior Secondary level, that is from grade 1-10. Like in the case of Khomas and Oshikoto, this school is also a public school which means the school depends on the Government for all it requires. The employees at this school are also paid by the Government and the school is subsidized by the government. The school has some recently built classrooms which are in a good condition the old buildings that are in a dilapidated state. Some of the old classrooms have big holes that learner could even use to sneak out of the class while the teacher is busy teaching in front. Due to the lack of classrooms, some learners are taught in classrooms made of poles and corrugated iron sheets. One of grade 8 classes I have observed is sheltered in this kind of structure where you can see everyone who is moving outside through the openings between poles. Based on my observation these classes are overcrowded and some learners are attending lessons while standing due to the shortage of chairs and desks. In this kind of structure, I noted that the wind was blowing and it blew rubbish in the classroom which made me uncomfortable. The sun also shone directly into the classroom since it was not completely walled. There are not enough chairs in the class; thus those learners who come earlier to school have the privilege of sitting on a chair while the late- comers spend the rest of their lessons standing or leaning against the poles. According to TX, the lack of enough chairs and desks creates a situation where learners sometimes fight for the chairs. Learners sit in rows sharing one small desk. Some chairs and desks are broken. According to the TX of school, the school is not equipped with adequate chairs and desks for all learners so that some learners sit on the floor, while in some classes the learners just sit on the sand because some of the classrooms are not floored. 55 The school has electricity and a tap for running water for drinking in the school yard but there is no water in the toilets, so toilets do not flush. There is no library where teachers or learners could borrow books. There is a shortage of textbooks for all learners; neither is there a computers used by learners. LA, for example, reported that she has never touched a computer in her life. According to TX there is only one computer in the Principal’s office which is used only by the secretary of the school. The TX of this school has noted a great shortage of teaching aids by saying ‘there is a shortage of teaching aids; therefore teachers always try to be creative and improvise.’ The school has reported a shortage of qualified teachers. Three of the teachers at this school are unqualified so they are teaching with only high school qualifications. There are two heads of departments for example, the Head of Department for Languages and HOD for Science and Mathematics. These head of departments do not have their own offices but just separate tables in one room. Like the other two cases the language policy per ministerial policy is the use of English as a medium of instruction. Learners are expected to use English in all lessons except in their mother tongue lessons. According to the TC of this school, they have a school policy or what they call a departmental policy where they ask learners who were caught speaking their mother tongue in the class to pay a certain amount of money. She stated that sometimes these learners feel embarrassed because they were not able to pay those charges so they end up owing the school a lot of money because of being caught speaking their mother tongue in the classroom. The majority of the learners at this school speak Oshiwambo, especially Oshikwanyama dialect. In spite of English being an official language and the language of instruction, I observed that most of the learners at this school are not really fluent enough in English or are shy to express themselves in English. Almost all the learners at this school belong to Oshiwambo ethnic group, so there is no diversity in language and culture. According to TX the most common language used by learners at this school is Oshiwambo and English which is used mostly in lessons. Many learners in this region are not multilingual, only a few of them indicated that they could speak Afrikaans or Portuguese because this region is closer to the border between Namibia and Angola where Portuguese is a lingua franca. TX has reported that they experience a problem with learners ‘incompetence in English. He feels that learners at this school are not well exposed to media such as TV, so that they lack basic English skills, which he believe contributes to poor results in examination. He 56 said the learners prefer to speak their vernacular languages and they tend to lack basic English skills. 4.3.2 Teachers and translanguaging This section deals with the results obtained from teachers and it includes teachers’ usage, reported use and perceptions of translanguaging. 4.3.2.1 Teachers’ usage of translanguaging Results from my observation with the teachers in Ohangwena with regard to the existence of translanguaging are presented as follows. Fig.17 below presents language used by teachers during my observation in OHR. LANGUAGE NORMALLY USED IN LESSONS Language used by teachers when TA greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners English Local languages Translanguaging x x x x x x x x TB greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand summarizing the lesson dismissing learners TC greeting learners explaining object introducing a lesson drawing learners’ attention explaining difficult terms asking questions giving tasks giving feedback learners seem not understand x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 57 x summarizing the lesson dismissing learners x x Figure 17. The language used by teachers in lesson in OHR (observation) Looking on the results from my observation, I noticed that translanguaging is used from time to time in at this school. During my visit in classes I came across instances of translanguaging during the lessons. For instance, in TA’s lesson she was explaining the reasons for South Africa’ exploiting Namibian natural resources during colonial times and she said ‘okwali nee hava ku fa oinima ngaashi Okawe elalakano loku ninga iimaliwa’ (they were exploiting Namibian resources such as diamond in order to make money). This was evident that teachers use translanguaging to clarify some points. 4.3.2.2 Teachers’ reported use of translanguaging The following section presents the results from interviews with the teachers regarding the existence of translanguaging in KHR. Fig. 18 below presents the response from teachers on the daily language used during lessons. Daily language used in lesson by teachers Languages English Mother tongue TA X X TB X X TC X X Others Figure 18.The language used by teachers daily in lessons in OHR (interviews) The results from the interviews with the teachers in Ohangwena region as shown in Fig 18 above indicate that two of the teachers in Ohangwena region use English and translanguage sometimes during lessons. The teachers gave the following reasons: TA: We use their mother tongues sometimes when they do not understand in order for them to understand.’ TB:’I use translanguaging for the learners to get the meaning; people understand the language they know, so I simplify it for them to understand’ TC. Indicates that he uses the mother tongue for the learners to grasp the meaning. In sum, teachers have demonstrated that they translanguage sometimes in order to simplify difficult terms and make learners understand. 58 Teachers were asked to indicate how often they use translanguaging during their lessons. Fig.19 presents the responses of teachers regarding the frequency of translanguaging of the teachers in Ohangwena Region. Languages English language Frequency always Teachers TA TB TC X X X often Translanguaging sometimes Rare never always often sometimes rare x x x Figure 19. The frequency of translanguaging by teachers in OHR (interviews) From the results above one can see that all of the teachers have indicated that they sometimes translanguage in their lessons. This shows that translanguaging is quite common in Ohangwena region. The teachers’ responses on how often they use local language concurrently with English are as follow: The responses from the three teachers’ views on the reasons for using or not using translanguaging the teachers in Ohangwena replied as follows: TA: reports that translanguaging may occur in lesson for the learners to understand. ‘Sometimes when you realize they do not get anything, you use their mother tongue to make them understand. Sometimes they could not express themselves well in English, thus they ask in their mother tongue, I use it sometimes for them to understand better.’ TB: ‘I use 80% English and code switch just to simplify for them to get the meaning of the concepts, I code switch for the learners to get meaning or to simplify the concepts’ TC: ‘Translanguaging occurs in lessons for the learners to grasp the meaning of the subject, it is necessary to bring in the mother tongue to make them understand, I use it for better understanding, if it could be allowed it will be a good idea, because I am sure learners could excel. Look at some professors in some countries, they cannot even speak proper English, but they are professors’. From the results one can see that all teachers have indicated that they translanguage sometimes. This indicated that translanguaging is obviously quite common at this school in OHR: 59 Never 4.3.2.3 Teachers’ perceptions on translanguaging. The teachers in Ohangwena Region have expressed their views on the use translanguaging in lessons by giving the following responses: Teachers in OHR have shown positivity toward translanguaging in lesson, by giving reason such as: TA: ‘I believe translanguaging can assist students better, it might be very helpful if it was allowed, but requires more time allocation to the periods.’ TB feels that if translanguaging were allowed during lesson, it could be a good idea, because preventing it could be problematic. She said ‘ let it be allowed, because sticking strictly English is problematic, unless all learners were equally exposed to English, since learners here speak their mother tongue at home, they are not exposed to media. If this study could reach education policy makers, there is a need for something to be done on the language issues’. TC reports, ‘if translanguaging could be allowed in lessons, it might help learners to understand, learners cannot be strictly forced to use English, translanguaging should be allowed, it is necessary’. Referring to his situation while studying in Zambia, he reported that they were forced to strictly use English and that made it difficult for him even to understand some things in his mother tongue. He says that the situation leads to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of some English terms in local languages. TX: stresses ‘If learners seem not to understand, just code switch to unlock their thinking and proceed with English’ The teachers reported also that due to the language policy they discourage learners from using the mother tongue during lessons TA states ‘I tell them to use English or sometimes pretend as if I do not understand their mother language’. TB has stated that she also discourages the learners from speaking mother tongues. ‘I tell them the disadvantage of relying on their mother tongue’ because relying on their mother tongue may disadvantage them. TC also indicated that she encourages learners to speak English at all times because they are advised to teach English across the curriculum’. The TX of the school has reported that they mostly use English, even if they understand local languages. In spite of positive views from the teachers, they also noted some drawbacks of using mother tongue concurrently with English: for instance TB feels that if learners were allowed to use their mother tongue, they may make it a habit and may not learn English. TC replied 60 that translanguaging may cause learners to lack basic English skills because they may just rely on their mother tongues. All in all the results from teachers at this school show that translanguaging actually occurs at this school as teachers have stressed the importance of making learners understand better. According to TX learners who are not good in English tend to be quiet. He reports, if you force learners to speak English only, they feel uncomfortable, it is a strategy to shut them up.’ He noted that the learners who are not proficient enough in English tend to be quiet and only the brave ones make efforts to participate in the lesson. All the teachers in Ohangwena region share the same sentiments on translanguaging and the subject content. TA and TC agree that it should indeed improve learners’ understanding of the subject. TB also agrees that it helps learners understand, he states, it is my wish if it could be allowed the results will improve for good’. TC believes that translanguaging can be very helpful ‘I am sure learners will understand and the results will also improve.’ The teachers have also reported how the mother tongue affects the learning of these learners. TA feels that the learners’ mother tongue is very important, which is why they prefer it mostly because they use it almost every day at home, outside the class, and allowing it should help them to understand other languages better. TB asserts, we think in our mother tongues and translate into other languages. ‘So if you did not understand something in your mother tongue first it will be difficult to understand it in other languages’ According to TC of Ohangwena, the mother tongue has a tremendous effect on the learners’ learning, he mentioned something he calls “mother tongue interference”, for example learners tend to translate directly from English to their mother tongue or vice versa, which sometimes misleads other people whose mother tongues are different from theirs. In summary, the teachers at the school in Ohangwena have highlighted the necessity of translanguaging, but they also indicated that due to the language policy they are not free to use it but they do use it sometimes especially when learners do not understand. They are optimistic that translanguaging has a potential to help learners to understand well during the lessons. 61 4.3.3 Students and translanguaging This section presents results from the students. 4.3.3.1 Students’ usage of translanguaging This section presents the results from learners in Ohangwena region. The following results were obtained from observing learners in the school in Ohangwena Region. Fig 20 presents the language used during my visit in lesson at this school. Language used by Learners when English LA Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher Local languages translanguaging x x x x x x x x LB Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher x x x x x x x x LC Asking questions to the teacher Answering questions from the teacher Discussing with peers in groups Interacting with other in the classroom Asking for permission from the teacher Reporting misdemeanours of fellow students Asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher x x x x x x x Figure 20. The Language used by learners in OHR (observation). From the results from my observation at this school, I found learners using their mother tongue with their school friends and sometimes with their teachers. During my observation, they seem to be nervous and so they tried to speak English but unconsciously code switch among themselves. Evidence of translanguaging from the observation shows that these learners translanguage when talking with friends. 62 4.3.3.2 Students reported use of translanguaging The Fig 21below presents the results about the language used among the learners themselves. Languages English Language Frequency always Learners LA LB LC X X X often sometimes Translanguaging Rarely never always often Sometimes rarely Never x x x Figure 21. The frequency of translanguaging among learners in OHR (interviews) Looking on the results from the interviews with the learners in OHR, the results indicate that learners always use translanguaging with their peers. They confirmed the use of code switch with their friends at school and at home with their family and neighbours. languages LA LB LC Mother tongue Oshikwanyama Oshikwanyama Oshikwanyama Other languages English, Afrikaans English, Afrikaans, French English, Afrikaans. Figure 22.The language use to translanguage by learners in OHR. The results show that most of the learners at this school are bilingual because they speak English and their mother tongues. This also shows that the language used at home is mostly their mother tongue and other local languages. The learners were also asked if they get any assistance from home for their academic work and which languages are used by their parents or siblings when assisting them with school work. The following were the responses from the three learners at the school in Ohangwena: (a) Learners get support from Yes home Yes LA Yes LB Yes LC No (b)The language used by English Mother tongue Others households when assisting with school work LA English Oshikwanyama LB English LC English Oshindonga Figure 23. The languages used by learners to translanguage in OHR. 63 As indicated on Fig. 23b, learners A and C have indicated that they get assistance with their school work in both English and local languages. This shows the role and the importance of the local languages in the education of these children. As indicated earlier the language used by siblings or parents to assist learners with their school work is their mother tongue and sometimes English. This shows the significance of local languages in the education. 4.3.3.3 Students ’perceptions on translanguaging Those learners who were interviewed expressed their views on why translanguaging may occur in the class: for example, all the learners at that school in Ohangwena Region have shown positivity on the use of local languages parallel to English because they said translanguaging is a good thing since it could help students to understand better. The learners at this school believe that translanguaging has a high possibility to assist learners understand the subject content very much. LA states that ‘it will help learners to understand subjects in details’, while LB states ‘yes it will help for better understanding.’ LC has the same feelings that it will improve their understanding. Nevertheless, they said translanguaging has the potential to cause learners not improve their English skills. She feels that English should be used in all subjects except in mother tongue lessons. Summing up, the results from this region show that translanguaging is actually prevailing at this school. The teachers reported that they use it sometimes, especially when learners seem not to understand. However, they also confirmed that they discourage it because the language policy says English should be used across the curriculum. They acknowledge that mother tongue use could really help learners with understanding. The learners on the other have also indicated that translanguaging is a good thing that helps them to understand, but they also felt that sometimes it may make some learners to be reliant on their mother tongue and not improve their English skills. 64 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESULTS This chapter presents discussions of results obtained from three schools in those three regions. I decided to discuss only some themes that are of relevance in my discussion, but not all of themes which were analyzed in the previous chapter. The results are discussed comparatively as obtained from three regions: for instance, discussion of findings from all three regions (5.1), observed usage of translanguaging by teachers and learners (5.1.1), reported use of translanguaging by teachers and learners (5.1.2), perception of teachers and learners (5.1.3.). 5.1 Discussion of findings from all three regions This section presents the discussion of findings of observations and interviews in all regions. Even though all these three schools are public schools, I noticed a disparity in terms of availability of the facilities, human resource and advancement in technology. For example, the school in Ohangwena Region which is a rural school experiences a noticeable shortage of classrooms, so that some learners are taught in structures made out of poles and corrugated iron sheets. The school in Ohangwena has no school library or a single computer used by leaners. Information form TX of Ohangwena and Oshikoto reveal a shortage of chairs and desks for learners which are why some learners were sharing chairs or sitting on the floor. Some teachers in Ohangwena are not professionally trained compared to the other two schools. In contrast, the schools in Oshikoto and Khomas are equipped with good classrooms. The school in Oshikoto is equipped with laptops for both teachers and learners, while the school in Khomas is also equipped with computers used by learners who attend computer classes. All of these three schools have reported the shortage of text books. As mentioned earlier, these regions are different in some aspects: for instance the school in Khomas is an urban school, while in Oshikoto the school is semi-urban and the one in Ohangwena is a typical rural school. The findings show that the dominant local languages used at the school in Khomas is Afrikaans, in Oshikoto it is Oshindonga and in Ohangwena it is Oshikwanyama. The findings from these regions show that translanguaging is more common in rural schools compare to schools in the urban areas. This claim is supported by the results from both teachers and learners in these schools. It seems to be a trend, as one moves from urban to rural areas, translanguaging becomes more common and vice versa. This may 65 be due to lack of resources and advancement in technology as well as lack of exposure to media. 5.1.1 Observed usage of translanguaging by teachers and learners The results from Khomas region show that translanguaging is not commonly practiced by the teachers during lessons, but it is more practical with the students. In the cases of Ohangwena and Oshikoto, I came across instances of translanguaging among both teachers and learners during lessons. The findings from observations in both Oshikoto and Ohangwena as presented on Fig.10 and Fig.17 reveal that I have come across instances of teachers using local languages concurrently with English especially when they are explaining lesson objectives, explaining difficult concepts, or when learners seem to not be on track. Based on these results, one could see that the learners in Oshikoto and Ohangwena translanguage at different times during lessons and use English habitually when talking with the teachers. This shows that the prevalence of translanguaging in Namibian schools varies from region to region and perhaps from school to school. In spite of English being an official language and the language of instruction, these learners tend to use their mother tongue. Even though the language policy prevents them from using their local languages, they seem not to be fluent enough in English; as a result, some of them perform poorly in examinations. This means these learners tend to be incompetent in English as a media of instruction at the same time they are not allowed to use their local languages which might help them to understand well The findings from learners in Khomas shown on Fig. 3 and Oshikoto Fig.13 and Ohangwena Fig.20 as presented in chapter 4, actually confirm the prevalence of translanguaging among the learners in these schools Unfortunately there were no instances of translanguaging in Khomas region during lessons perhaps because there was not much teaching taking place as learners were busy with examinations, but, I did encounter those learners speaking their mother tongue with friends in corridors During my observations, learners in Ohangwena seemed to be nervous and tried to speak English. These learners were normally speaking their mother tongue when interacting with their peers and during group discussions or when asking each other. These findings answer my research question 1 on the existence of translanguaging partly because I witnessed the cases of translanguaging during my observations. The evidence of translanguaging among the learners is presented in Fig. 6, 13 and 20 respectively. 66 5.1.2 Reported use of translanguaging by teacher and learners This section presents the findings from teachers in those three schools. The findings reveal that translanguaging is undeniably a concern in Namibian schools perhaps due to multiple indigenous languages and due to the language policy that inhibits the used of local languages simultaneously with English during lessons The report from the teachers in Khomas indicates that they strictly use English language by giving reason such as; English is an official language in Namibia and the language of instructions. But teachers from Oshikoto and Ohangwena have confirmed translanguaging sometimes during lessons These teachers highlighted why they resort to translanguaging during their lessons. For instance teachers in Ohangwena and Oshikoto region reported that they translanguage to clarify difficult concepts, for the learners to understand well and to unlock learners mind in case the learners are not on track or seem not to understand well. There is an irony in views expressed by some respondents on this phenomenon. Referring to the language policy in Namibia teachers restrict learners to using English since it is the medium of instruction, but on the other hand they have noticed it is necessary because translanguaging helps learners understand the subject content better, which is also supported by the study done by (2012). These teachers have mentioned that they encourage learners to always speak English, but on the other hand, they feel that translanguaging could really help learners understand the subject if it was allowed in Namibian schools. From the respondents views one may feel that translanguaging is necessary in some school, but the language policy does not give provision for that. Thus teachers are left with no other alternative then just to enforce the language policy. In light of the constructivists’ theory where I aligned my argument, knowledge does not exist independently of the children but is constructed within the society in which they find themselves. This implies that there is a need to acknowledge the existence of the society in which the school operates According to this theory, learners are not just passive recipients of objective ‘knowledge’ but they are active participants in a process of constructing knowledge by making sense of the world around them (Säljö, 1992). Thus, in my view, restricting learners to using English only and discouraging them from using mother tongue/local languages will not do them any good because language is part of their culture. Researchers such as Martin, (2005), Martin and Arthur, (2005) have stressed the importance of mother tongue use parallel to the official language in lessons. They believe translanguaging is a good practice because it offers classroom participants a ‘creative, and 67 pragmatic’ and safe practice between the official language of the lesson and the language which the classroom participants know. They stressed that the use of mother tongue parallel to the official language can allow the classroom participant to better accomplish the lesson and its pragmatic response used to explain texts and provide great access (Martin, 2005). This idea was also supported by Lin (2005), who emphasizes that code switching has great pedagogical potentials such as increasing inclusion, participation and understanding in the learning process. Moreover, it also develops a good relationship between teachers and learners. According to TX of the school in Ohangwena, learners who are incompetent in English and discouraged from using their mother tongue in lessons tend to be quiet and passive during lessons and rarely participate in class discussions. She added that if the teacher tries to persuade them to participate, they simple shut their mouths. These kinds of attitudes were also noted by Osaki (1991), who relates the passivity of learners in classrooms in Tanzania, those teachers who insist on only using English in their classes end up talking to themselves with no inputs from the learners. This justifies the point that translanguaging is really needed in these case to unlock the language restriction and allow learners’ active participation in the lessons. The findings from interviews with learners in Khomas region in Fig. 7, confirmed that learners translanguage from time to time especially when talking to one another. The learners have agreed to translanguage with friends at school and home with their families. Similarly, findings from interviews with the learners in Oshikoto and Ohangwena in Fig. 14 and Fig. 21 show the frequency of translanguaging among themselves. From these findings one could see that learners at these schools translanguage at different intervals either with the teachers or among themselves. These learners have mentioned that they translanguage with their friends at school and at home with their family and neighbors. As indicated in Fig. 8, the common languages used to translanguage between learners in Khomas are Afrikaans, Oshiwambo, Otjiherero, Damara/Nama and local languages. While in Oshikoto Fig.15 and Ohangwena Fig. 22 the languages used to translanguage between learners are Oshindonga, Oshikwanyama, Afrikaans and Portuguese. Looking at these results it is evident that learners translanguage in these regions/schools, and they confirmed their translanguaging with friends at school and families and neighbors at home. All of the learners who were interviewed have indicated that they speak more than one language, which suggests that all of these learners use translanguage and this proves that translanguaging really happens in these schools. 68 The reasons given by learners regarding translanguaging are not far from each other in all three regions: for instance, as LA of Khomas stated that the teachers use to translanguage in order to clarify difficult concepts or words because when the teachers or fellow learners are translanguaging, it helps learners to understand better. LB of Oshikoto also agrees that translanguaging should be allowed. From these responses, one can learn that translanguaging is really necessary as these learners have stressed the importance of making them understand the subject contents better. In general one can see that all learners acknowledged the importance of translanguaging as a tool for enhancing understanding during lessons as they have indicated that it really helps them to understand the subject content. This section answered my second question on the extent to which translanguaging occurs in those schools because those teachers particularly at the school in Oshikoto and Ohangwena confirmed that they sometimes use translanguaging during their lessons. 5.1.3 Perceptions of translanguaging from teachers and learners The teachers in the three regions have expressed their views on translanguaging. In general teachers have shown some similarities in their views regarding the use of mother tongue alongside the official language in lesson. Although teachers who were interviewed have indicated that the Namibian language policy does not support the idea, some of them are optimistic that translanguaging is really necessary. For example TB of Khomas region was positive about translanguaging by stating that local languages which are commonly known in the community, for instance Afrikaans, should be used alongside English. She proposed that each region should use a dominant local language parallel to English during lessons. TA of Khomas School believes that translanguaging can really be useful and learners may understand well. She believes that translanguaging may also improve learners’ performance for the better. She feels that if local languages were accommodated in lessons, it could certainly help learners to understand the subjects better. This was supplemented by TB, who suggested that the common local language in each region should be allowed to be used concurrently with the English to assist learners to understand better. She said, ‘We appreciate the use of English, but there is a need to accommodate local languages in our lessons because local languages may help learners to understand the subject content better.’ These views get support from Martin and Lin (2005) who emphasized that code switching has a great potential of increasing inclusion, participation and understanding in the process and also develops a good relationship between teachers and learners. 69 In the case of Oshikoto and Ohangwena teachers share the some views with Khomas teachers. For instance TA of the school in Oshikoto Region has faith in the use of local languages in order to help learners understand well. She claims that’ a language is part of culture, so learners should not be discouraged from using their mother tongues, because mother tongue used concurrently with English may help learners to understand and get the meanings correctly. In the same way, TB of Oshikoto Region is confident that translanguaging gives learners a clear understanding of the subject content, so it should not be limited. This notion is also supported by Creese and Blackledge (2008) who claimed that using two languages has been a valuable resource that may contributes to the performance, lesson accomplishments and participation of learners. In my opinion, learning can occur through interaction and effective communication in a friendly learning environment; I therefore concur with TB of Ohangwena who asserts that, people think in their mother tongues and translate into other languages. This means if one does not understand something in his/her mother tongue first it will be difficult to understand in other languages. These teachers feel that the mother tongue is a very important tool in learning. This gains support from Mouton (2007) who asserted that code switching can be seen as a communication strategy to learners for whom English is a foreign language to assist in transmitting knowledge, clarify concepts when teachers discover that learners have deficient linguistic competency in English. These teachers also registered some weaknesses of translanguaging. For instance TB and TC of Ohangwena replied that translanguaging may cause confusion. TB is of the opinion that learners should use English to practice and improve their English skills, and she also mentioned that translanguaging may consume a lot of time allocated to the period. This was reported by Zentella who describes some negative attitudes and criticism about code switching by some teachers, pointing out that some bilingual teachers feel embarrassed about code switching because it is attributed to careless language habit (Zentella, 2003). Shin (2005) reports one of the teachers as saying, ‘when the learners do not understand something in one language, they go to another language which is easier for them and sometimes one has to bounce from one language to the other, which is wrong.’ This is exactly the kind of the attitudes of some teachers in Namibia where one finds multilingual/cultural classrooms. In my opinion, multicultural and multilingual classrooms are inseparable because wherever there are learners with different languages, they might also have different cultures, different beliefs, or different religions. Namibia has 13 recognized indigenous languages (and 70 numerous dialects), which qualify it to be considered as a culturally and linguistically diverse country, but yet these languages are looked down upon. This negative attitude were demonstrated by TX of Oshikoto who stressed that the moment a learner talks to him in his/her mother tongue, he usually responds in English to discourage it. This shows that some Namibian teachers believe that local languages cannot be used in schools perhaps because they are not internationally recognized. As a result; some of these teachers set rules that discourage learners from using their local languages. In my opinion learning and understanding of subject content may occur successfully when there is a good classroom communication between learners and teachers and when there is a connection between schools and the society in which the school is operating. The presence of the society in which learning is expected to take place should be valued as far as the languages and cultures of the learners are concerned. It is necessary for the learners’ mother tongues or local languages to be used parallel to the official language. Therefore, for learning to take place, one has to consider all aspects of language, culture and interaction between teacher and learners and between learners themselves, as well as the good cooperation between school and home. The learners in these three schools also expressed their opinions regarding translanguaging. In general, the learners at these three schools expressed almost similar opinions about translanguaging in lesson. They acknowledged the importance of translanguaging in helping learners understand the subject. Learners in Khomas reported that they believe that translanguaging may assist the understanding of subject content very much. LA of Khomas states that ‘as long as one understands something in his/her mother tongue, he/she can also understand it in other languages. LC believes that translanguaging can really help learners to understand the subject content because sometimes there are certain words or terms learners are not familiar with but when explained in their mother tongue they understand well. She said ‘the mother tongue unlocks one’s mind and makes one understand. This also makes the subject more interesting because one understands everything and gets the whole meaning of the subject. LA of Khomas feels also that translanguaging may also disturb the lesson because some learners who are not familiar with local languages may not understand and may feel discriminated. LC of Khomas feels that translanguaging may cause learners to rely only on their mother tongues and may not improve their English literacy. 71 In the case Oshikoto, learners have confirmed that translanguaging really helps them with the understanding of the subject content very well. Apart from their optimism about translanguaging, they also noted some disadvantages of translanguaging. For instance LA of Oshikoto reports that translanguaging may cause learners not to practice their English anymore. These learners feel that translanguaging is really necessary, but perhaps due to the policy which does not support translanguaging, they developed these negative perceptions. LB of Ohangwena feels that it may bring confusion and suggests that the local languages should be used only in mother tongue lessons. LA of Oshikoto feels that teachers should use translanguaging for learners to understand better, because sometimes they do not understand so teachers should use the mother tongue to explain difficult words or terms. All the learners in Ohangwena share the same sentiment that translanguaging should be used to make them understand. Apart from positive perceptions learners have registered some pessimism about translanguaging. For instance LC of Ohangwena feels that translanguaging may cause learners to be lazy about improving their English anymore. All the learners in Ohangwena School have agreed that translanguaging has a potential to assist them in understanding the subject content well. Since the official policy in Namibia does not support these ideas of code switching, I see the language policy rather advocating a monolingual kind of education system while disregarding indigenous languages, which may in future lead to the death of some of the minority local languages. For me, the most important aspects of a good classroom communication are where language barriers are minimized to ensure interaction between learners and teachers, co-operation and learner participation. I think his section has answered my third question whether translanguaging has the possibility of enhancing understanding of subject content. In summary, the findings from both teachers and learners at these schools show that translanguaging is a reality is some Namibian schools, and as one moves from urban to rural areas, the use of translanguaging become more prominent as illustrated by the results from these three schools. The results indicate that translanguaging is indeed happening at these schools and that most of the respondents are positive about it. It is evident that translanguaging is actually common in some schools in Oshikoto and Ohangwena regions. 72 5.2 Recommendation The results reveal that there are many local languages in Namibian school, and that it is imperative to note that these languages have a role to play in day-to-day educational activities of the learners since they use them at home with their parents or siblings and to assist them with school work. Therefore it is advisable to acknowledge these local languages in the education system. I suggest for flexibility in the education system and policies related to local language, and flexibility in teaching multicultural classrooms. In order to ensure learning and participation, schools should develop and embrace a curriculum that strives to include the whole society and those who were previously disadvantaged and systematically excluded (Cummins, 2000a). I think this should be embraced in Namibia in order to value indigenous languages. The education system and policies should place a value on students’ languages and cultures that will encourage them to participate in their daily academic and extra-mural activities. There should be flexibility in instructional approaches in order to respond to the bilingual context of the classroom. Levin (2009) stated that learners need to be fully engaged because engagement is a vehicle that improves students’ work and make teachers lives easier. Moreover, increasing student’s motivation to learn is the most powerful thing schools and teachers can do to improve results. Lin & Marti (2005) suggest that curriculum content should be appealing to the learners and be comprised of activities such as music, drama, and sports which may provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their skills and find a place in school. In addition, there should be a positive and optimism in education rooted in public trust. The improvement of school and classrooms should be complemented by engagement of all citizens to ensure that everyone understands and supports the purpose of education. I believe this can only be achieved in Namibia if there is a cordial relationship between teachers, learners and parents and if learners’ languages and cultures are considered to be useful in their academic pursuits. Therefore, if translanguaging is allowed in Namibia schools, it may motivate learners to be more engaged and participate during lessons and that may enhance leaning and understanding of subject content which may lead to an improvement in learners’ performance at junior secondary level. All the stake holders in the education system should work together for the benefit of the learners and the society in which education is taking place. I think there is a need to review the language policies and do some adjustments to allow flexibility in teaching and curriculum content. The use of local languages in schools may ensure the inclusion of all 73 learners. Thus it is necessary to do some adjustments to the curriculum and teaching approaches to accommodate all learners in multilingual /cultural classrooms. It is wise for translanguaging to be practiced in Namibian schools, because looking at the findings of this study; translanguaging is sternly discouraged within the school premises. I think there should not be strict rules preventing learner from speaking their indigenous languages in classes, because forcing these learner to use English only will make it difficult for them to comprehend well in English. Therefore in my opinion there is a need for flexibility in language usage in the classroom to enhance interaction, learning and the participation of learners, because their lack of competence in English causes them to be quiet, passive, unmotivated and less confident. Therefore, if the language of instruction becomes a barrier to effective communication in the classroom, there is a need to explore some effective communicative possibilities. So, if translanguaging is allowed in Namibia, it might be a best approach to teaching in bilingual classrooms. All in all, if translanguaging was allowed in Namibian schools, it may enhance comprehension of the subject content and may improve the academic performance of the learners at junior secondary level. 5.3 Conclusion To sum up, this thesis has explored the existence and extent to which translanguaging occurs in both teachers and learners, as well as finding reasons to translanguage and whether translanguaging has the ability to enhance understanding of the subject content in the three regions of Khomas, Oshikoto and Ohangwena. The results from these three schools reveal that the teachers are not really familiar with the concept of translanguaging, but they are more familiar with code switching, thus the two terms were used synonymously. The results shows that this phenomenon is really an issue of concern in Namibian schools and needs to be looked into by policy makers in the Ministry of Education from a policy point of view and from the reality on the ground. Both teachers and learners have acknowledged the necessity of translanguaging and cited the potential of translanguaging in enhancing learning and understanding, participation, socialization in multicultural/lingual classrooms. The conclusion should be that translanguaging is really necessary to be allowed in Namibian schools as a means of communication strategy in cases where learners seem not to be on track. The study found that there are certain schools with internal policies that prohibit learners from speaking their local languages in the school premises even to the extent of charging them to pay a certain amount as a punishment. I think this is not good as it may 74 cause learners to show contempt of their mother tongues and devaluate their cultural and linguistic heritages. 75 References Arthur, Jo. (1996). Code Switching and Collusion: Classroom Interaction in Botswana Primary Schools. Linguistics and Education, 8(1), 17-33. Arthur, Jo, & Martin, Peter. (2006). 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Some Literary Investigations. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 51-66. 77 Appendices APPENDIX A: Interview questions to the learners The information collected from this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality and anonymity. Please try to answer the questions as honestly as you can. Thank you. 1. General information about languages 1.1. What is your mother tongue? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1.2. Can you speak or understand other languages? Specify ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1.3. Are there some learners in your class whose mother tongues are different form yours? Specify those languages …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1.4. Which language s) do you use at? Home with your family School with teachers School with other learners Location/village/ with neighbours and friends 1.5. How do you rate your reading, writing, listening skills in the following languages? Good, Better, Best Language skills Languages Reading Writing best better good best better English Your mother tongue 78 Listening) good best better good Other local languages ……………………… ….. 1.6. Do your parents or elder siblings assist you with your school work? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… If yes, what language do they use? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… If not, why? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Question related to code switching in lessons What is translanguaging? Martin (2005) defines tis translanguaging as ‘the use of local languages alongside with the ‘official language’ of the lesson’ 2.1. OCCURENCE, 2.2 ‘Do you use more than one language during lessons in your classroom? Yes………………………………………………………No……………………………………… 2.3 When do you normally code switch during lessons? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.4. Why do you use more than one language during lessons? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. FREQUENCY 3.1. How often do you change from one language to the next? Never Sometimes Every day Frequently 3.2 With whom do you usually mix languages? …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. REASONS FOR CODE-SWITCHING 4.1. Do you think using your mother tongue and English at the same time in a lesson is good or bad? Give your opinions. Good……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79 Bad……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………….................... .................................................................................................................................................................... 4.2. Do you think learners should be allowed to code switch during lessons? Give your opinions. ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4.3. What could be the reasons why learners are not supposed to code switch in lessons? Give your opinions.……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.4. Do you think translanguaging at your level will assist learners understand the subjects better? If your answer is yes, give reasons …………………………………………………………………………………………………… If your answer is no, give reasons …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 4.5. In your opinion, do you think using your mother tongue and English in the class will or will not help you understand the subjects better? …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. End of the interview. Thank you very much! 80 APPENDIX B: Interview questions to the teachers The information be collected from this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality and anonymity. Our interview will be recorded so that I can write it down later. Please answer the questions as honestly as you can. Thank you. 1. What language do you normally use during your lessons? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Do you use more than one language (translanguage) during your lesson? Give reasons why. Yes……………………………………………………………………………………………… No……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. Do you experience a situation where learners answer or ask questions in their mother tongues? Can you explain please? Yes……………………………………………………………………………………………………… No………………………………………………………………………………………………………… . 4. How often does this happen? The interviewer will tick on the appropriate box a) Always b) Often c) Sometimes d) Never 5. How do you act in response to the learners asking or answering questions in their mother tongue? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6. Were there times when you as a teacher used your mother or local languages during your lesson? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7. How often does this happen and maybe why? Can you explain please? Sometime Often Always Never …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8. Tell me please, do you think the learners’ mother tongues have an effect on their learning? Explain your answer please. 81 ………………………………………………………………………………............................................ .................................................................................................................................................................... 9. In your opinion, should the use of two or more languages be allowed in lessons? Explain please Yes……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. No……………………………………………………………………………….………………………... 10. In your opinion, do you think translanguaging (the use of more than one language) in lessons may improve learners’ understanding of the subject contents? Explain …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12. What are your general views and comments concerning the use of local languages parallel to English in the same lessons? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… End of interview, thanks very much for your time! 82 APPENDIX C: Interview questions to the principal/HOD The information collected from this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality and anonymity. Please answer the questions as honestly as you can. Thank you. 1. General questions about the school 1.1 In which region is this school? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1.2 Is your school a private or a public school? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1.3. Is your school equipped with the following facilities? Facilities Yes No Chairs and desks for all the learners Enough text books for all the learners Computers used by learners Computers used by teachers Electricity and water School library Enough teaching aids for teachers 1.4. Do you experience any challenge related to the use of the language of instruction at your school? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1.5 What is the language policy with regard to teaching and learning at your school? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1.6. Do you have learners of different linguistic or cultural back grounds in this school? Yes………………………………………………………………………………………………… No…………………………………………………………............................................................ 1.7. Are the learners allowed to use their mother tongues during lessons in at this school? …………………........................................................................................................................................ 83 1.8. How does your school recognize linguistic and cultural diversity in terms of teaching and learning? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. End of interview, thank you very much for your time. 84 APPENDIX D: Observation checklist School…………….Grade………………………Region……………………subject……… The researcher will be observing the use of the language by teachers and learners during lessons Which language do the teachers or learners use when: TEACHER English Local languages Greeting learners Explaining lesson objectives Introducing the new lesson Drawing learners attention Explaining difficult terms Asking questions Defining new concepts Giving tasks/home works Giving feedback Learners do not understand Summarizing the lessons Dismissing the class LEARNERS Asking questions to the teacher Answering teachers’ questions Discussing in groups Interacting with others in the class Asking for permission Reporting those making noise to the teacher They asking other learners Saying goodbye to the teacher 85 Code switch APPENDIX E: A political map of Namibia 86 APPENDIX F. Letter for request for permission from the professor 87 APPENDIX G. Letter for permission from the researcher 88 APPENDIX H. Letter for permission from Oshikoto Educational director 89 Appendix I. Letter for permission from Ohangwena Educational director 90 APPENDIX J. Letter for permission from Khomas educational director 91 92